Two-terminal nanotube devices and systems and methods of making same

ABSTRACT

A two terminal memory device includes first and second conductive terminals and a nanotube article. The article has at least one nanotube, and overlaps at least a portion of each of the first and second terminals. The device also includes stimulus circuitry in electrical communication with at least one of the first and second terminals. The circuit is capable of applying first and second electrical stimuli to at least one of the first and second terminal(s) to change the relative resistance of the device between the first and second terminals between a relatively high resistance and a relatively low resistance. The relatively high resistance between the first and second terminals corresponds to a first state of the device, and the relatively low resistance between the first and second terminals corresponds to a second state of the device.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority under 35 U.S.C. §120 and is acontinuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/280,786, filed onNov. 15, 2005, entitled Two-Terminal Nanotube Devices and Systems andMethods of Making Same. U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/280,786,claims priority under 35 U.S.C. §119(e) to the following applications,the contents of which are incorporated herein in their entirety byreference:

-   -   U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/679,029, filed on May        9, 2005, entitled Reversible Nanoswitch;    -   U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/692,891, filed on        Jun. 22, 2005, entitled Reversible Nanoswitch;    -   U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/692,918, filed on        Jun. 22, 2005, entitled NRAM Nonsuspended Reversible Nanoswitch        Nanotube Array; and    -   U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/692,765, filed on        Jun. 22, 2005, entitled Embedded CNT Switch Applications For        Logic.

This application is related to the following applications, the contentsof which are incorporated herein in their entirety by reference:

-   -   U.S. Pat. No. 7,479,654 entitled Memory Arrays Using Nanotube        Articles With Reprogrammable Resistance, issued Jan. 20, 2009;        and    -   U.S. Pat. No. 7,394,687, entitled Non-Volatile Shadow Latch        Using A Nanotube Switch issued Jul. 1, 2008.

BACKGROUND

1. Technical Field

The present application is generally related to the field of switchingdevices and, more specifically, to two terminal nanotube devices thatmay be used to make non-volatile and other memory circuits.

2. Discussion of Related Art

Digital logic circuits are used in personal computers, portableelectronic devices such as personal organizers and calculators,electronic entertainment devices, and in control circuits forappliances, telephone switching systems, automobiles, aircraft and otheritems of manufacture. Early digital logic was constructed out ofdiscrete switching elements composed of individual bipolar transistors.With the invention of the bipolar integrated circuit, large numbers ofindividual switching elements could be combined on a single siliconsubstrate to create complete digital logic circuits such as inverters,NAND gates, NOR gates, flip-flops, adders, etc. However, the density ofbipolar digital integrated circuits is limited by their high powerconsumption and the ability of packaging technology to dissipate theheat produced while the circuits are operating. The availability ofmetal oxide semiconductor (“MOS”) integrated circuits using field effecttransistor (“FET”) switching elements significantly reduces the powerconsumption of digital logic and enables the construction of the highdensity, complex digital circuits used in current technology. Thedensity and operating speed of MOS digital circuits are still limited bythe need to dissipate the heat produced when the device is operating.

Digital logic integrated circuits constructed from bipolar or MOSdevices do not function correctly under conditions of high heat orextreme environment. Current digital integrated circuits are normallydesigned to operate at temperatures less than 100 degrees centigrade andfew operate at temperatures over 200 degrees centigrade. In conventionalintegrated circuits, the leakage current of the individual switchingelements in the “off” state increases rapidly with temperature. Asleakage current increases, the operating temperature of the devicerises, the power consumed by the circuit increases, and the difficultyof discriminating the off state from the on state reduces circuitreliability. Conventional digital logic circuits also short internallywhen subjected to extreme environment because they may generateelectrical currents inside the semiconductor material. It is possible tomanufacture integrated circuits with special devices and isolationtechniques so that they remain operational when exposed to extremeenvironment, but the high cost of these devices limits theiravailability and practicality. In addition, such digital circuitsexhibit timing differences from their normal counterparts, requiringadditional design verification to add protection to an existing design.

Integrated circuits constructed from either bipolar or FET switchingelements are volatile. They only maintain their internal logical statewhile power is applied to the device. When power is removed, theinternal state is lost unless some type of non-volatile memory circuit,such as EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable read-only memory), isadded internal or external to the device to maintain the logical state.Even if non-volatile memory is utilized to maintain the logical state,additional circuitry is necessary to transfer the digital logic state tothe memory before power is lost, and to restore the state of theindividual logic circuits when power is restored to the device.Alternative solutions to avoid losing information in volatile digitalcircuits, such as battery backup, also add cost and complexity todigital designs.

Important characteristics for logic circuits in an electronic device arelow cost, high density, low power, and high speed. Conventional logicsolutions are limited to silicon substrates, but logic circuits built onother substrates would allow logic devices to be integrated directlyinto many manufactured products in a single step, further reducing cost.

Devices have been proposed which use nanoscopic wires, such assingle-walled carbon nanotubes, to form crossbar junctions to serve asmemory cells. (See WO 01/03208, Nanoscopic Wire-Based Devices, Arrays,and Methods of Their Manufacture; and Thomas Rueckes et al., “CarbonNanotube-Based Nonvolatile Random Access Memory for MolecularComputing,” Science, vol. 289, pp. 94-97, 7 July, 2000.) Hereinafterthese devices are called nanotube wire crossbar memories (NTWCMs). Underthese proposals, individual single-walled nanotube wires suspended overother wires define memory cells. Electrical signals are written to oneor both wires to cause them to physically attract or repel relative toone another. Each physical state (i.e., attracted or repelled wires)corresponds to an electrical state. Repelled wires are an open circuitjunction. Attracted wires are a closed state forming a rectifiedjunction. When electrical power is removed from the junction, the wiresretain their physical (and thus electrical) state thereby forming anon-volatile memory cell.

U.S. Pat. No. 6,919,592, entitled “Electromechanical Memory Array UsingNanotube Ribbons and Method for Making Same” discloses, among otherthings, electromechanical circuits, such as memory cells, in whichcircuits include a structure having electrically conductive traces andsupports extending from a surface of a substrate. Nanotube ribbons thatcan electromechanically deform, or switch are suspended by the supportsthat cross the electrically conductive traces. Each ribbon comprises oneor more nanotubes. The ribbons are typically formed from selectivelyremoving material from a layer or matted fabric of nanotubes.

For example, as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,919,592, a nanofabric maybe patterned into ribbons, and the ribbons can be used as a component tocreate non-volatile electromechanical memory cells. The ribbon iselectromechanically-deflectable in response to electrical stimulus ofcontrol traces and/or the ribbon. The deflected, physical state of theribbon may be made to represent a corresponding information state. Thedeflected, physical state has non-volatile properties, meaning theribbon retains its physical (and therefore informational) state even ifpower to the memory cell is removed. As disclosed in U.S. Pat. No.6,911,682, entitled “Electromechanical Three-Trace Junction Devices,”three-trace architectures may be used for electromechanical memorycells, in which the two of the traces are electrodes to control thedeflection of the ribbon.

The use of an electromechanical bi-stable device for digital informationstorage has also been suggested (See U.S. Pat. No. 4,979,149, entitled“Non-volatile Memory Device Including a Micro-Mechanical StorageElement”).

The creation and operation of bi-stable, nano-electro-mechanicalswitches based on carbon nanotubes (including mono-layers constructedthereof) and metal electrodes has been detailed in earlier patentapplications having a common assignee as the present application, U.S.Pat. Nos. 6,784,028, 6,835,591, 6,574,130, 6,643,165, 6,706,402,6,919,592, 6,911,682, and 6,924,538; U.S. Patent Publication Nos.2005-0062035, 2005-0035367, 2005-0036365, 2004-0181630; and U.S. patentapplication Ser. Nos. 10/341,005, 10/341,055, 10/341,054, 10/341,130,the contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference in theirentireties (hereinafter and hereinbefore the “incorporated patentreferences”).

SUMMARY

The present invention provides structures and methods of makingtwo-terminal nanotube switches, arrays of memory cells based on theseswitches, fuse/antifuse devices based on these switches, andreprogrammable wiring based on these switches.

Under one aspect, a two terminal switching device includes a firstconductive terminal and a second conductive terminal in spaced relationto the first terminal. The device also includes a nanotube articlehaving at least one nanotube. The article is arranged to overlap atleast a portion of each of the first and second terminals. The devicealso includes a stimulus circuit in electrical communication with atleast one of the first and second terminals. The stimulus circuit iscapable of applying a first electrical stimulus to at least one of thefirst and second terminals to change the resistance of the devicebetween the first and second terminals from a relatively low resistanceto a relatively high resistance, and is capable of applying a secondelectrical stimulus to at least one of the first and second terminals tochange the resistance of the device between the first and secondterminals from a relatively high resistance to a relatively lowresistance. The relatively high resistance between the first and secondterminals corresponds to a first state of the device, and the relativelylow resistance between the first and second terminals corresponds to asecond state of the device. The first and second states of the devicemay be nonvolatile. The resistance of the first state may be at leastabout ten times larger than the resistance of the second state.

Under another aspect, the nanotube article overlaps at least a portionof the first terminal with a controlled geometrical relationship. Thecontrolled geometrical relationship may allow electrical current to flowrelatively well between the first terminal to the nanotube article, andallow heat to flow relatively poorly between the first terminal and thenanotube article. The controlled geometrical relationship may be apredetermined extent of overlap. Under another aspect, at least one ofthe first and second terminals has a vertically oriented feature, andthe nanotube article substantially conforms to at least a portion of thevertically oriented feature. Under another aspect, the nanotube articleincludes a region of nanotube fabric of defined orientation.

Under another aspect, the first electrical stimulus is an eraseoperation. Under another aspect, the second electrical stimulus is aprogram operation. Under another aspect, the stimulus circuit is capableof applying a third electrical stimulus to at least one of the first andsecond terminals to determine the state of the device. The thirdelectrical stimulus may be a non-destructive read-out operation.

Under another aspect, a two-terminal memory device includes a firstconductive terminal and a second conductive terminal in spaced relationto the first conductive terminal. The device also includes a nanotubearticle having at least one nanotube. The article is arranged to overlapat least a portion of each of the first and second terminals. The devicealso includes a stimulus circuit in electrical communication with atleast one of the first and second terminals. The stimulus circuit iscapable of applying a first electrical stimulus to at least one of thefirst and second terminals to open one or more gaps between one or morenanotubes and one or more conductors in the device. The opening of oneor more gaps changes the resistance of the device between the first andsecond terminals from a relatively low resistance to a relatively highresistance. The stimulus circuit is also capable of applying a secondelectrical stimulus to at least one of the first and second terminals toclose one or more gaps between one or more nanotubes and one or moreconductors in the device. The closing of one or more gaps changes theresistance of the device between the first and second terminals from arelatively high resistance to a relatively low resistance. A conductorin the device comprises one or more of the first terminal, the secondterminal, a nanotube, and a nanotube segment. The relatively highresistance between the first and second terminals corresponds to a firststate of the device, and the relatively low resistance between the firstand second terminals corresponds to a second state of the device. Thefirst and second states of the device may be nonvolatile.

Under another aspect, the first electrical stimulus overheats at least aportion of the nanotube article to open one or more gaps. Under anotheraspect, one or more thermal characteristics of the device are selectedto minimize a flow of heat out of the nanotube element. The flow of heatout of the nanotube element may be minimized by arranging the nanotubearticle and the first terminal with a controlled geometricalrelationship that limits heat flow out of the nanotube article and intothe first terminals. The controlled geometrical relationship may be apredetermined extent of overlap. The flow of heat out of the nanotubeelement may be minimized by selecting a material for the first terminalthat conducts electricity relatively well and conducts heat relativelypoorly. The material may have a relatively high electrical conductivityand a relatively low thermal conductivity.

Under another aspect, the first electrical stimulus opens one or moregaps by forming a gap between one or more nanotubes and one or more ofthe first and second terminals. Under another aspect, the firstelectrical stimulus opens one or more gaps by separating one or morenanotubes from one or more other nanotubes in an electrical network ofnanotubes. Under another aspect, the first electrical stimulus opens oneor more gaps by breaking one or more nanotubes into two or more nanotubesegments. Under another aspect, the first electrical stimulus opens oneor more gaps by exciting one or more phonon modes of one or morenanotubes in the nanotube article. The one or more phonon modes maybehave as a thermal bottleneck. The one or more phonon modes may beoptical phonon modes. One or more nanotubes in the nanotube article mayselected to have a particularly strong radial breathing mode, or adefect mode. Under another aspect, the second electrical stimulus closesone or more gaps by attracting one or more nanotubes to one or moreconductors. The second electrical stimulus may attract one or morenanotubes to one or more conductors by generating an electrostaticattraction.

Under another aspect, a selectable memory cell includes a cell selectiontransistor including a gate, a source, and a drain, with the gate inelectrical contact with one of a word line and a bit line, and a drainin electrical contact with the other of the word line and the bit line.The cell also includes a two-terminal switching device, which includes afirst conductive terminal, a second conductive terminal, and a nanotubearticle having at least one nanotube and overlapping at least a portionof each of the first and second terminals. The first terminal is inelectrical contact with the source of the cell selection transistor andthe second terminal is in electrical contact with a program/erase/readline. The cell also includes a memory operation circuit in electricalcommunication with the word line, bit line, and program/erase/read line.The memory operation circuit is capable of applying a select signal onthe word line to select the cell and an erase signal on theprogram/erase/read line to change the resistance of the device betweenthe first and second terminals from a relatively low resistance to arelatively high resistance. The memory operation circuit is also capableof applying a select signal on the word line to select the cell and aprogram signal on the program/erase/read line to change the resistanceof the device between the first and second terminals from a relativelyhigh resistance to a relatively low resistance. The relatively highresistance between the first and second terminals corresponds to a firstinformational state of the memory cell, and the relatively highresistance between the first and second conductive elements correspondsto a second informational state of the memory cell. The first and secondinformational states may be nonvolatile.

Under another aspect, the memory operation circuit applies a selectsignal on the word line to select the cell and a read signal on theprogram/erase/read line to determine the informational state of thememory cell. Determining the informational state of the memory cell maynot change the state of the memory cell. Under another aspect, aplurality of selectable memory cells are connected to theprogram/erase/read line.

Under another aspect, a reprogrammable two-terminal fuse-antifuse deviceincludes a first conductor, a second conductor in spaced relation to thefirst conductor, and a nanotube element having at least one nanotube andoverlapping at least a portion of each of the first and secondconductors. The nanotube element is capable of opening an electricalconnection between the first and second conductors in response to afirst threshold voltage across the first and second conductors to form afirst device state. The nanotube element is also capable of closing anelectrical connection between the first and second conductors inresponse to a second threshold voltage across the first and secondconductors to form a second device state. The device may be across-point switch. The first and second device states may benonvolatile.

Under another aspect, a reprogrammable interconnection between aplurality of wiring layers includes a first conductive terminal and aplurality of wiring layers, each of which includes a wiring layerconductive terminal. The interconnection also includes a stimuluscircuit in electrical communication with the first conductive terminaland with each wiring layer conductive terminal. The interconnection alsoincludes a nanotube article having at least one nanotube. The nanotubearticle is arranged to overlap at least a portion of the firstconductive terminal and at least a portion of each wiring layerconductive terminal. The stimulus circuit is capable of applying a firstelectrical stimulus to cause the nanotube article to form aninterconnection between two wiring layers of the plurality of wiringlayers. The stimulus circuit is also capable of applying a secondelectrical stimulus to cause the nanotube article to break aninterconnection between two wiring layers of the plurality of wiringlayers. Under another aspect, the stimulus circuit breaks allinterconnections in response to a security concern.

Under another aspect, a method of making a two terminal memory deviceincludes providing a first conductive terminal, and providing a secondconductive terminal in spaced relation to the first terminal. The methodalso includes providing a stimulus circuit in electrical communicationwith at least one of the first and second terminals. The method alsoincludes providing a nanotube article comprising at least one nanotube.The nanotube article overlaps by a predetermined extent at least aportion of at least one of the first and second terminals. The deviceresponse is a function of the predetermined extent of overlap betweenthe nanotube article and the at least one of the first and secondterminals.

The predetermined extent of overlap may be determined by a timedisotropic etch procedure. The predetermined extent of overlap may bedetermined by a directional etch procedure. The predetermined extent ofoverlap may be determined by a thickness of a sacrificial film. Thepredetermined extent of overlap may be determined by a thickness of theat least one of the first and second terminals.

Under another aspect, the method includes fabricating a second memorydevice, which has a structure that is a mirror image of a structure ofthe two terminal memory device.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

In the Drawing,

FIG. 1A illustrates a cross sectional view of an exemplary embodiment ofthe present invention;

FIG. 1B illustrates a cross sectional view of an exemplary embodiment ofthe present invention;

FIGS. 2A-I are SEM micrographs of structures according to certainembodiments of the invention;

FIGS. 3A-E illustrate cross sectional views of structures according tocertain embodiments of the invention;

FIG. 4 is a cross sectional view of a structure according to certainembodiments of the invention;

FIG. 5 is a cross sectional view of a structure according to certainembodiments of the invention;

FIG. 6 is a cross sectional view of a structure according to certainembodiments of the invention;

FIG. 7 is a flow chart illustrating general fabrication processesaccording to certain embodiments of the invention;

FIGS. 8A-F illustrate cross sectional views of structures created duringfabrication steps according to certain embodiments of the invention;

FIGS. 9A-C illustrate cross sectional views of structures created duringfabrication steps according to certain embodiments of the invention;

FIGS. 10A-I illustrate cross sectional views of structures createdduring fabrication steps according to certain embodiments of theinvention;

FIGS. 11A-C illustrate cross sectional views of structures createdduring fabrication steps according to certain embodiments of theinvention;

FIGS. 12A, B and 13 illustrate cross sectional views of structurescreated during fabrication steps according to certain embodiments of theinvention;

FIGS. 14A-J illustrate cross sectional views of structures createdduring fabrication steps according to certain embodiments of theinvention;

FIGS. 15A-N illustrate cross sectional views of structures createdduring fabrication steps according to certain embodiments of theinvention;

FIGS. 16A-L illustrate cross sectional views of structures createdduring fabrication steps according to certain embodiments of theinvention;

FIGS. 17A-M illustrate cross sectional views of structures createdduring fabrication steps according to certain embodiments of theinvention;

FIG. 18 is a flow chart illustrating switch operability verificationusing read, erase, and programming cycles according to certainembodiments of the invention;

FIG. 19 is a flow chart illustrating erase cycles according to certainembodiments of the invention;

FIG. 20 is a graph illustrating current and voltage erasecharacteristics of devices according to certain embodiments of theinvention;

FIG. 21 is a flow chart illustrating programming cycles according tocertain embodiments of the invention;

FIGS. 22A and 22B are graphs illustrating read, erase, and programcurrent and voltage characteristics and resistance characteristics,respectively, of devices according to certain embodiments of theinvention;

FIGS. 23A-E, 24A-E and 25A-E illustrate cross-sectional views ofstructures created during fabrication steps according to certainembodiments of the invention;

FIG. 26 is a cross sectional view of a structure according to certainembodiments of the invention;

FIG. 27 is a cross sectional view of a structure according to certainembodiments of the invention;

FIG. 28 is a cross sectional view of a structure according to certainembodiments of the invention;

FIG. 29 is a cross sectional view of a structure according to one aspectof the present invention;

FIGS. 30A and 30B illustrate schematics of prior art structures;

FIG. 31 illustrates a cross section of a device according to certainembodiments of the invention;

FIGS. 32A and 32B illustrate schematic diagrams according to certainembodiments of the invention;

FIGS. 33A-G illustrate cross sectional views of structures createdduring fabrication steps according to certain embodiments of theinvention;

FIGS. 34A-E illustrate cross sectional views of structures createdduring fabrication steps according to certain embodiments of theinvention; and

FIGS. 35 and 36 are plan views of structures according to certainembodiments of the invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Preferred embodiments of the present invention provide two-terminalnanotube switches, and a number of devices using those switches. Ingeneral, a nanotube element or article overlaps at least a portion ofeach of two terminals, e.g., conductive elements. A stimulus circuit,connected to one or both of the terminals, applies appropriateelectrical stimulus to which the nanotube element responds by changingthe state of the switch. For example, the resistance of an electricalpathway between the two terminals characterizes the state of the switch.A relatively high resistance pathway corresponds to an “open” or OFFstate of the switch, and a relatively low resistance pathway correspondsto a “closed” or ON state of the switch. The two states arenon-volatile. The stimulus circuit can non-destructively read-out (NDRO)the state of the switch, and can change the state (e.g., resistance) ofthe switch repeatedly.

The inventors believe that the ability to change the switch between thetwo states is related to a relationship between the thermal andelectrical characteristics of the switch. More specifically, theinventors believe that the performance of the switch is related to arelationship between the electrical current that passes through thenanotube element and the dissipation of heat out of the nanotubeelement. Desirably, in order to change the switch to the “open” state,the stimulus circuit applies a stimulation that is, the inventorsbelieve, large enough to cause overheating in the nanotube element, andat the same time the switch has design characteristics that limit theamount of current-induced heat that can flow out of the nanotubeelement. The inventors believe that this allows the overheating of thenanotube element, which breaks conductive paths in the switch andcreates the “open” state. In other words, the inventors believe thatthermal and electrical management of the switch enhance the buildup ofheat in the nanotube element, so that an “open” state can be formed. Insome embodiments, thermal and electrical management is accomplished byoverlapping the nanotube article with at least one of two terminals,e.g., conductive elements, in a predetermined, controlled way. Forexample, in some embodiments, the nanotube element overlaps at least oneof the two terminals with a specified geometry, e.g., a controlledoverlap length of a preferred length. Then heat flows poorly from thenanotube element into the terminal, but the length of contact is longenough that current flows well from the terminal into the nanotubeelement. In some embodiments, thermal and electrical management isaccomplished by fabricating the switch from selected materials thatdissipate heat particularly poorly. For example, the switch can bepassivated with a layer that has a low thermal conductivity, which helpsto trap heat in the nanotube element. Or, the terminals can befabricated from a material that has a relatively good electricalconductivity and a relatively poor thermal conductivity. Other designsand materials for thermal and electrical management of the switch arecontemplated. It should be noted that while changes in the resistance ofthe switch due to electrical stimulation have been repeatedly observed,that the causes of these resistance changes are still being consideredfrom both a theoretical and experimental standpoint. At the time offiling, it is the inventors' belief that thermal effects as describedherein may cause or contribute to the observed behavior. Other effectsmay also cause or contribute the observed behavior.

The switch can be fabricated using methods that are easily integratedinto existing semiconductor fabrication methods, as described in greaterdetail below. Several methods that allow the fabrication of an overlapof specified geometry between the nanotube article or element and aterminal are described in detail.

Because the switch can be controllably switched between two non-volatilestates, and because the fabrication of the switch can be integrated intoexisting semiconductor fabrication methods, the switch is useful in anumber of applications. For example, the switch can be implemented innon-volatile random access memory (NRAM) arrays, reprogrammablefuse/antifuse devices, and in reprogrammable wiring applications.

First, embodiments of nanotube-based nonvolatile memory devices/switcheswill be shown, and their various components will be described. Next,methods of fabricating switching elements will be illustrated. Methodsof testing as-fabricated switching elements will be described. Last,embodiments of devices that utilize nanofabric-based nonvolatileelements, such as memory arrays, fuse/antifuse devices, andreprogrammable wiring, and methods of making same, will be illustrated.

2-Terminal Nanotube Switches

FIG. 1A illustrates a cross sectional representation of nonvolatile2-terminal nanotube switch (2-TNS) 10. Nanotube element 25 is disposedon substrate 35, which includes a layer of insulator 30. Nanotubeelement 25 at least partially overlaps two terminals, e.g., conductiveelements 15 and 20, which are both deposited directly onto nanotubeelement 25.

In this embodiment, nanotube element 25 is patterned within a regionthat can be defined before or after deposition of conductive elements 15and/or 20.

Conductive elements 15 and 20 are in contact with a stimulus circuit100. Stimulus circuit 100 electrically stimulates at least one ofconductive elements 15 and 20, which changes the state of switch 10.More specifically, nanotube element 25 responds to the stimulation bychanging the resistance of switch 10 between the conductive elements 15and 20; the relative value of the resistance corresponds to the state ofthe switch. For example, if stimulus circuit 100 applies a relativelyhigh voltage and relatively high current across conductive elements 15and 20, then nanotube element 25 responds by changing the resistance ofthe switch between conductive elements 15 and 20 to a relatively highresistance. This corresponds to an “erased” state of the device, whereelectrical conduction is relatively poor between conductive elements 15and 20. For example, if stimulus circuit 100 applies a relatively lowvoltage and relatively low current across conductive elements 15 and 20,then nanotube element 25 responds by changing the resistance of theswitch between conductive elements 15 and 20 to a relatively lowresistance. This corresponds to a “programmed” state of the device,where electrical conduction is relatively good, or even near-ohmic,between conductive elements 15 and 20. Generally it is preferable thatthe values of the high and low resistances are separated by at least anorder of magnitude. Example voltages, currents, and resistances for“programmed” and “erased” switch states for some embodiments oftwo-terminal nanotube switches are described in greater detail below.

Conductive elements 15 and 20 are preferably made of a conductivematerial, and can be made of the same or different materials dependingon the desired performance characteristics of switch 10. Conductiveelements 15 and 20 can, for example, be composed of metals such as Ru,Ti, Cr, Al, Au, Pd, Ni, W, Cu, Mo, Ag, In, Ir, Pb, Sn, as well as othersuitable metals, and combinations of these. Metal alloys such as TiAu,TiCu, TiPd, PbIn, and TiW, other suitable conductors, including CNTsthemselves (single walled, multiwalled, and/or double walled, forexample), or conductive nitrides, oxides, or silicides such as RuN, RuO,TiN, TaN, CoSi_(x) and TiSi_(x) may be used. Other kinds of conductor,or semiconductor, materials can also be used. Conductive elements 15 and20 generally have a thickness in the range of 5 to 500 nm, for example.In this embodiment, conductive elements 15 and 20 are preferablyseparated by about 160 nm. The separation can be as small or as large asallowed by process design, for example from 5 nm up to 1 micron,depending on the desired characteristics of switch 10. Preferably theseparation is less than about 250 nm.

Preferred methods of fabricating a full overlap between a nanotubeelement and a terminal, or conductive element, follow well knowntechniques described in patent publications and issued patents listedabove and commonly assigned to the assignee of the present application,or are currently used in present-day electronic industry practices.Preferred methods of fabricating a partial overlap between a nanotubeelement and a terminal, or conductive element, of a controlled overlaplength are described in greater detail below.

Insulator 30 may be composed of SiO₂, SiN, Al₂O₃, BeO, polyimide, orother suitable insulating material, and have a thickness in the range of2 to 500 nm, for example. Insulator 30 is supported by substrate 35,made from silicon for example. Substrate 35 may also be a composite ofsemiconductors, insulators, and/or metals that connect to conductiveelements 15 and 20 to supply electrical signals to nonvolatile2-terminal nanotube switch (2-TNS) 10 as illustrated further below. Insome embodiments, substrate 35 may be of the same material as insulator30, e.g. quartz. In general, the substrate 35 may be any material thatwill accept the deposition of nanotubes by spin coating, but preferablya material chosen from the group consisting of a thermal oxide ornitride, including but not limited to silicon dioxide, silicon nitride,alumina on silicon, or any combination of the following on silicon orsilicon dioxide: aluminum, molybdenum, iron, titanium, platinum, andaluminum oxide, or any other substrate useful in the semiconductorindustry.

In some embodiments, nanotube element 25 is a fabric of matted carbonnanotubes (also referred to as a nanofabric). Methods of making nanotubeelements and nanofabrics are known and are described in the incorporatedpatent references. In some embodiments, the nanotube element or fabricis porous, and material from conductive elements 15 and/or 20 fills atleast some of the pores in the nanotube element. In some embodiments,nanotube element 25 includes single-walled nanotubes (SWNTs) and/ormulti-walled nanotubes (MWNTs). In some preferred embodiments, thenanotube element 25 includes double walled nanotubes (DWNT). In somepreferred embodiments, nanotube element 25 includes one or more bundlesof nanotubes. In some preferred embodiments, nanotube element 25includes one or more bundles of DWNTs. In some embodiments, nanotubeelement 25 includes SWNTs, MWNTs, nanotube bundles, and a largeproportion of DWNTs. In some embodiments, nanotube element 25 includes asingle nanotube.

Some nanotubes fabricated by some methods are preferred for use in 2-TNS10. For example, nanotubes produced by CVD processes are preferred,e.g., they tend to consistently exhibit the switching behavior describedherein.

FIG. 2A shows an SEM image of an example SWNT nanofabric 50 that isfabricated with a spin-on method as a substantially single layer ofmatted nanotubes. While FIG. 2A illustrates a nanofabric that is amonolayer, multiple layers of nanofabric may be fabricated with otherappropriate techniques. That is, preferred embodiments do not require ananofabric that is necessarily a monolayer of nanotubes. For example,the nanofabric can include bundles of nanotubes and/or single nanotubes.While FIG. 2A shows a nanofabric having randomly oriented nanotubes,aligned or nearly aligned nanotubes may be used as well. Also, thenanotubes can be metallic and/or semiconducting, as described in theincorporated patent references. In general, the nanofabric need notinclude carbon nanotubes at all, but simply needs to be made of amaterial and have a form that exhibits nonvolatile switching behavior asdescribed herein, e.g. silicon nanowire based fabrics, other nanowiresor quantum dots.

The nanofabric shown in FIG. 2A is preferably fabricated on a horizontalsurface. In general, fabrics are conformal and may be oriented atvarious angles, without limitations. FIG. 2C is an SEM image ofstructure 90 with nanofabric 95 conforming to an underlying step afterdeposition. These conformal properties of nanofabrics may be used tofabricate vertically oriented 2-TNS with enhanced dimensional controland requiring less area (e.g. can be fabricated at greater density) asillustrated further below.

In some embodiments, nanotube element 25 in FIG. 1A is a SWNT nanofabricwith a thickness between 0.5 to 5 nm. In other embodiments nanotubeelement 25 in FIG. 1A is a MWNT nanofabric with a thickness between 5 to20 nm. SWNT diameters may be in the range of 0.5 to 1.5 nm, for example.Individual nanotubes may have a length in the 0.3 to 4 um range, andthus can be long enough to span the separation between conductiveelements 15 and 20. Nanotubes may also be shorter than the distancebetween conductive elements 15 and 20 but contact (or “network with”)other nanotubes to span the separation between the elements. See U.S.Pat. No. 6,706,402, entitled “Nanotube Films and Articles” for detailsof conductive articles and networks formed from nanotubes. In general,the nanotube density should be high enough to ensure that at least onenanotube or network of nanotubes spans the entire distance betweenconductive elements 15 and 20. Other preferred characteristics fornanotubes are described herein.

The two-terminal nanotube switch 10 illustrated in FIG. 1A has a pathwaybetween conductive elements 15 and 20 that can be in one of two states.One state is characterized by a pathway that has a relatively highresistance, R_(HIGH) between conductive elements 15 and 20. Currentgenerally flows poorly between conductive elements 15 and 20 in this“open,” “erased”, or OFF state. The other state is characterized by apathway that has a relatively low resistance, R_(LOW) between conductiveelements 15 and 20. Current generally flows easily between conductiveelements 15 and 20 in this “closed,” “programmed,” or ON state.

Switch 10 is typically fabricated in the low-resistance state. Theresistance of this state depends on the characteristics of nanotubeelement 25 and of conductive elements 15 and 20. The inherent resistanceof nanotube element 25, and nanofabrics in general, can be controlled tobe in the range of 100 to 100,000 ohms per square, for example, asmeasured by four-point probe measurements. Films with resistancesbetween 1,000 to 10,000 ohms per square typically have a density of 250to 500 nanotubes per square micron. In some embodiments nanotube element25 preferably has, for example, between 1 and 30 nanotubes. In someembodiments nanotube element preferably has 5 to 20 nanotubes.

The total resistance of switch 10 between conductive elements 15 and 20in the “closed” state includes the contact resistance of each overlapregion in series, plus the inherent series resistance of the nanotube,divided by the number of nanotube pathways (which may be singlenanotubes and/or networks of nanotubes) between elements 15 and 20. Insome preferred embodiments, the total as-fabricated resistance of 2-TNS10 is typically in the range of 10 kΩ to 40 kΩ. In other preferredembodiments, the switch can be designed such that the resistance is lessthan 100Ω or greater than 100 kΩ. An explanation of nanotube resistancemay be found in the reference N. Srivastava and K. Banerjee, “AComparative Scaling Analysis of Metallic and Carbon NanotubeInterconnections for Nanometer Scale VLSI Technologies”, Proceedings ofthe 21^(st) International VLSI Multilevel Interconnect Conference(VMIC), Sep. 29-Oct. 2, 1004, Wikoloa, Hi., pp. 393-398.

In general, the device performance does not vary strongly with thedensity of nanotubes in the nanotube element. For example, the sheetresistance of the nanofabric can vary by a factor of at least 10, andthe device performs equally well. In a preferred embodiment, the sheetresistance of the nanofabric is below approximately 1 kΩ. In someembodiments, the resistance of the nanofabric is assessed afterfabrication, and if the resistance is found to be greater thanapproximately 1 kΩ, then additional nanofabric is deposited with adensity sufficient to lower the resistance below about 1 kΩ.

Stimulus circuit 100 applies appropriate electrical stimulation to atleast one of conductive elements 15 and 20 to switch 2-TNS 10 betweenthe low resistance and high resistance states. In general, theappropriate electrical stimulation to 2-TNS 10 depends on the particularembodiment of the switch. For example, in some embodiments, stimuluscircuit 100 can change switch 10 to the high resistance “open” state byapplying a relatively high voltage bias across conductive elements 15and 20 with unrestricted current. In some embodiments, this voltage isabout 8-10 V, or about 5-8 V, or 3-5 V, or less. Sometimes, theelectrical stimulation is a voltage pulse, and sometimes a series ofpulses is used to switch 2-TNS 10 to the “open” state, for example aseries of one or more pulses between 1-5 V. The duration of one or morepulses may also be varied to switch 2-TNS 10 to the “open” state. It hasbeen found in some embodiments that allowing a relatively high currente.g. greater than 50 uA to flow through the switch can enhance itsability to switch to the “open” state. In some embodiments, stimuluscircuit 100 must apply a stimulation that exceeds a critical voltageand/or current in order to switch 2-TNS 10 to an “open” state. Ingeneral, any electrical stimulation that is sufficient to cause 2-TNS 10to switch to a relatively high resistance state can be used. In someembodiments, the state is characterized by a resistance R_(HIGH) on theorder of 1 GΩ or more. In general, the state can also be considered tobe characterized by a relatively high impedance.

In some embodiments, stimulus circuit 100 can change switch 10 to thelow resistance “closed” state by applying a relatively voltage biasacross conductive elements 15 and 20. In some embodiments, a voltage ofabout 3-5 V, or about 1-3 V, or less, switches 2-TNS to thelow-resistance state. In some cases, the electrical stimulation requiredto switch 2-TNS 10 to a “closed” state depends in part on the electricalstimulation that was used to switch 2-TNS 10 to an “open” state. Forexample, if a relatively high voltage bias was used to “open” theswitch, then a relatively high voltage bias may be needed to “close” theswitch. For example, if an 8-10 V pulse is used to “open” the switch,then a 3-5 V pulse may be needed to “close” the switch. If 3-5 V pulseis used to “open” the switch, then a 1-2 V pulse may be needed to“close” the switch. In general, the stimulation used to “open” and“close” the switch can vary each time, although the “close” stimulationdepends in part on the “open” stimulation. In other words, even thoughthe switch is “opened” for example with an 8-10 V pulse, and then“closed” with a 3-5 V pulse, the switch can subsequently be “opened”again with a 3-5 V pulse and “closed” with a 1-2 V pulse. Greatervoltages used to open the switch lead to greater voltages to close theswitch. Although the examples listed here use “open” voltages that arehigher than the “close” voltages, in some embodiments the “close”voltages may be higher than the “open” voltages. A distinction betweenclose and open operations relies more on current control than on voltageamplitude. As an example: a 6V erase pulse without current restrictioncan be used to open the switch and subsequently, an 8V program pulsewith a current cap of 1 uA can be used to close the switch.

Sometimes, the electrical stimulation is a voltage pulse, and sometimesa series of pulses is used to switch 2-TNS 10 to the “closed” state, forexample a series of one or more pulses between 1-5 V. The duration ofone or more pulses may also be varied to cause 2-TNS 10 to switch to the“closed” state. In some embodiments, the same voltage level can be usedto “close” and “open” the switch, but the waveforms of the two stimuliare different. For example, a series of pulses at a given voltage couldbe used to “open” the switch, and a single pulse at the same or asimilar voltage could be used to “close” the switch. Or, for example, along pulse at a given voltage could be used to “open” the switch, and ashort pulse at the same or a similar voltage could be used to “close”the switch. Using these sorts of waveforms may simplify the design of2-TNS 10 because multiple voltages may not need to be applied to theswitch. In particular embodiments of the invention, this phenomenonoccurs when currents are limited during program and unrestricted duringerase.

It has also been found in some cases that limiting the current thatflows through the switch can enhance its ability to switch to the“closed” state. For example, adding a 1 MΩ inline resistor betweenstimulus circuit 100 and one of conductive element 15 or 20, to limitthe current in the switch to less than 1000 nA, can enhance the abilityof 2-TNS 10 to switch to the “closed” state by about 40%. Anotherexample is active circuitry that would limit the current during theprogram cycle. In general, any electrical stimulation that is sufficientto cause 2-TNS 10 to switch to a relatively low-resistance state can beused. In some embodiments, the state is characterized by a resistanceR_(LOW) on the order of about 100 kΩ or less. In some preferredembodiments, the resistance of the relatively high resistance state isat least about 10 times higher than the resistance of the relatively lowresistance state. In general, the state can also be considered to becharacterized by a relatively low impedance. In some preferredembodiments, the impedance of the relatively high impedance state is atleast about 10 times higher than the impedance of the relatively lowimpedance state.

The two states are nonvolatile, i.e. they do not change until stimuluscircuit 100 applies another appropriate electrical stimulus to at leastone of conductive elements 15 and 20, and they retain state even ifpower is removed from the circuit. Stimulus circuit 100 can alsodetermine the state of 2-TNS 10 with a non-destructive read-outoperation (NDRO). For example, stimulus circuit 100 applies a lowmeasurement voltage across conductive elements 15 and 20, and measuresthe resistance, R between the conductive elements. This resistance canbe measured by measuring the current flow between conductive elements 15and 20 and from that calculating the resistance R. The stimulus issufficiently weak that it does not change the state of the device, forexample is a voltage bias of about 1-2 V in some embodiments. In generalit is preferable that R_(HIGH) is at least ten times greater thanR_(LOW) so that stimulus circuit 100 can more easily detect the state.

The inventors believe that when the switch changes states, theconductive pathway in the switch experiences physical changes thatmodify its ability to carry current. In other words, the inventorsbelieve that the electrical relationship changes between one or moreconductors along the conductive pathway due to a change in the physicalrelationship between the conductors. In the state where the resistanceof 2-TNS 10 is high, the inventors believe that an electricalseparation, or discontinuity, exists between a sufficient number ofconductors to significantly limit the pathway's ability to carrycurrent. This may arise from a physical gap forming between thoseelements in response to electrical stimulation by stimulus circuit 100.In the state where the resistance of 2-TNS 10 is low, the inventorsbelieve that an electrical contact or continuity exists between asufficient number of conductors to allow the pathway to carry currentrelatively well. This may arise from the closing of a gap between one ormore conductors in response to electrical stimulation by stimuluscircuit 100.

The different conductors in the pathway of the switch include one ormore individual nanotubes or nanotube segments in nanotube element 25,and two terminals 15 and 20. Because one or more nanotubes in thenanotube element provide the pathway between the two terminals, it ispossible that a change in the physical relationship between thenanotubes and the terminals, and/or between the nanotubes, and/or withinor between segments of each individual nanotube itself, causes thechange in the switch state. For example, nanotubes may contact one ormore of the terminals in the low resistance state, and may lose physicalcontact with one or more of the terminals in the high resistance state.Or, for example, an electrical network of nanotubes within the nanotubeelement may touch each other in the low resistance state, and may beseparated by gaps in the high resistance state. Or, for example, anindividual nanotube may be physically continuous in the low resistancestate, and may have a physical gap in the middle of the nanotube in thehigh resistance state. The two resulting nanotube pieces or segments caneach be considered to be a (shorter) nanotube. In general, the physicalrelationship between a nanotube and one or more conductors in thetwo-terminal nanotube switch may change. The inventors believe thatdepending on the particular embodiment, changes in one or moreparticular kinds of physical relationship, e.g., nanotube to terminal,network nanotube to network nanotube, or intra-nanotube, may predominatethe switching behavior of the switch. For different physical designrules of the switch, the phenomena may vary.

The inventors believe that physical changes to the conductive pathway in2-TNS 10 during an “open” stimulation by stimulus circuit 100 may arisefrom thermal effects in the conductors. More specifically, the inventorsbelieve that overheating caused by the presence of a threshold voltageand/or current density in at least a portion of the nanotubes ofnanotube element 25 may cause the nanotubes in the element to physicallyseparate from one or more conductors in the pathway to form a gap. Forexample, it has been observed that a threshold current of about 20microamps can physically break an individual nanotube into two distinctsegments, which are separated by a gap. In some embodiments the gap isabout 1-2 nm, and in other embodiments the gap is smaller than about 1nm or larger than about 2 nm. This physical gap prevents current fromflowing through the nanotube, yielding an “open” path characterized by ahigh resistance. If nanotube element 25 is a fabric of nanotubes, thenthe current in each individual nanotube may generally be a function ofthe total current and the number or density of nanotubes, accounting forthe fact that in some cases many nanotubes may join together to form anelectrical pathway. The inventors believe that in some embodiments, byapplying a total current sufficient that the current in one or moreindividual nanotubes exceeds about 20 microamps, those nanotubes mayoverheat and break. Because those nanotubes no longer carry current, thecurrent in unbroken nanotubes may increase, causing one or more of thosenanotubes to overheat and break. Thus in rapid sequence most or all ofthe current-carrying nanotubes may overheat and break, creating an“open” path or “erased” state in 2-TNS 10, characterized by a relativelyhigh resistance. FIG. 2B is a micrograph of a nanofabric switch thatappears to show all or most of the conductive nanotubes pathways broken(for example, see arrow).

Similarly, the inventors believe that overheating caused by a thresholdvoltage and/or current density applied to the nanotubes may physicallybreak contact between one or more nanotubes within an electrical networkof nanotubes. While a particular threshold voltage and/or currentdensity required to separate two nanotubes from each other within 2-TNS10 is not currently identified, it is possible that the voltage and/orcurrent density is comparable to or lower than that required to break anindividual nanotube. Also, overheating caused by a threshold voltageand/or current density may physically break contact between one or morenanotubes in nanotube element 25 and one or more of conductive elements15 and 20.

The inventors believe that in general, 2-TNS 10 may experience physicalbreaks at locations susceptible to overheating, e.g., weak thermal linksor thermal bottlenecks along the pathway that nanotube element 25provides between conductive elements 15 and 20. The inventors believethat if the pathway breaks at a given location, the current density mayincrease throughout the remainder of the pathway, which may induceoverheating and breaks at other locations. Thus in rapid sequence mostor all of the current-carrying pathways may overheat and break, creatingan “open” path or “erased” state in 2-TNS 10, characterized by arelatively high resistance.

The inventors believe that a “close” stimulation by stimulus circuit 100causes an electrostatic attraction that may cause the creation of aconductive pathway in 2-TNS 10. This attraction may pull or move thenanotubes and conductors into contact with each other. As discussedabove, the electrical stimulation that is needed to switch 2-TNS 10 to a“closed” state has been observed to be in part a function of theelectrical stimulation that was previously used to switch 2-TNS 10 to an“open” state. The inventors believe that this effect may be related tothe size of the gap or gaps that a particular “open” stimulation causesbetween nanotubes and conductors in the pathway. For example, arelatively low “open” voltage may cause relatively small overheating,which may create relatively small gaps between nanotubes and conductors.Then, a relatively low “close” voltage may be required to sufficientlyattract the nanotubes and conductors across those small gaps, and maybring them into contact with each other. Or, for example, a relativelyhigh “open” voltage may cause relatively large overheating, which maycreate relatively large gaps between nanotubes and conductors. Then, arelatively high “close” voltage may be required to sufficiently attractthe nanotubes and conductors across those large gaps, to bring them intocontact with each other. An insufficiently high “close” voltage may notattract the nanotubes and conductors with sufficient strength to drawthem into contact.

The inventors believe that an undesirably high “close” voltage, forexample of about 8-10 V in some embodiments, may be high enough toattract a nanotube to a conductor. However, once the nanotube andconductor touch, the current that begins to flow through the connectionmay cause a local temperature jump at the connection. This may overheatthe connection, and may cause the nanotube and conductor to againseparate. This process of connecting and disconnecting may repeat untilthe “close” voltage is removed. In this case, the switch may failbecause it cannot be programmed or “closed.” However, the switch may beclosed by a somewhat lower “close” voltage. An undesirably high “open”voltage, for example of about 15-16 V in some embodiments, may causeoverheating that may cause a very large gap between the nanotubes andconductors, for example of 30-40 nm. This gap may be so large that no“close” voltage will be high enough to sufficiently attract thenanotubes and conductors so as to bring them into contact with eachother. In this case, the switch may fail because it is no longerprogrammable. The switch may be irreparably damaged because no stimulusis sufficient to attract the nanotubes and conductors into contact.

The inventors believe that an alternative mechanism that can close theelectrical pathway by stimulus circuit 100 may be due to electricalarcing that would occur across the gap (a gap formed by a previous“open” operation.) The electrons and/or resulting high temperature maydraw material (located in the vicinity of the gap) into the gap, tore-establish a contiguous electrical pathway.

The inventors have observed that if 2-TNS 10 is not passivated, and isstimulated in an inert gas, then the strength of stimulation required to“close” the switch is related to the stimulation used to “open” theswitch. In other words, the size of the gap may be related to the“close” stimulation in an inert gas. The inventors have also observedthat if 2-TNS 10 is not passivated, and is stimulated in a vacuum, thatthe strength of the stimulation required to “close” the switch staysapproximately constant, within about 10%, regardless of the stimulationused to “open” the switch. In other words, the size of the gap may beunrelated, or weakly related, to the stimulation in a vacuum. Theinventors believe that a vacuum may allow heat to build up more rapidlyin the nanotube element than it would in a gas, possibly because heatmay leak from the nanotube element into the gas.

The inventors believe that overheating caused by the presence of athreshold voltage and/or current in 2-TNS 10, which may break contactbetween a nanotube and a conductor, is possibly related to the presenceof thermally-induced lattice vibrations, or phonons, in the nanotube. Inparticular, the inventors believe that overheating may excite one ormore particular phonon modes in the nanotube, and that this phonon modemay break contact between a nanotube and a conductor. In general, heatexcites a spectrum of acoustic and optical phonons in a material, e.g.,in a nanotube. Acoustic phonon modes can transport heat, while opticalphonon modes generally do not contribute to the transport of heat. Someoptical phonon modes may couple to acoustic phonon modes, allowing heatto flow from optical modes into acoustic modes, which then transportheat. However, if heat does not flow easily from optical modes into theacoustic modes, e.g., cannot be transported through the nanotube, then arapid buildup of heat, or a thermal bottleneck, may occur in thenanotube. This may cause overheating that may be sufficient to breakcontact between the nanotube and a conductor.

The inventors have obtained Raman spectra for different species ofnanotubes that have been tested in 2-TNS 10, and have observed thatpreferred nanotubes, e.g., nanotubes that consistently exhibit theswitching behavior described herein, typically have a pronounced opticalphonon mode that corresponds to a radial breathing mode of the nanotube.The inventors believe that this breathing mode may be related to theswitching behavior of 2-TNS 10. For example, the mode may behave as athermal bottleneck, trapping heat inside the nanotube. The mode mayallow the nanotube, or a contact between the nanotube and a conductor,to be more easily damaged by a threshold voltage and/or current densitythan other species of nanotubes that do not exhibit the mode. Thisbreathing mode may also couple to a mode that is related to the breakingof a nanotube, or of contact between the nanotube and a conductor. Inother words, the breathing mode itself may not be directly related tothe possible formation of gaps in the switch, but may be related to aphenomenon that may form gaps in the switch.

Preferred nanotubes may also have in common other phonon modes thatrelate to their ability to break contact with conductors. For example,in certain nanotubes one or more defect modes may exist, or one or moremodes that may couple strongly to the mode of a bond between thenanotube and a conductor. In general, one or more optical or acousticphonon modes may contribute to breaking the pathway in 2-TNS 10, e.g.,“opening” the switch may be phonon-induced. Different species ofnanotubes, for example nanotubes fabricated by different methods or withdifferent process conditions, and/or nanotubes with different numbers ofwalls, may have different phonon spectra. Some species may possessphonon modes or other features that may cause or enhance thebreakability of contact between a nanotube and a conductor. For example,having more than one wall may enhance the breakability of contactbetween a nanotube and a conductor.

The inventors believe that the switching behavior of 2-TNS 10 may resultfrom a key relationship between the thermal and electricalcharacteristics of the components of the switch. The inventors believethat two-terminal nanotube switches preferably may provide asufficiently high voltage and/or current to a nanotube element, and atthe same may allow a sufficient amount of heat to build up in thenanotube element so as to break contact between one or more nanotubesand conductors. Preferably, this break is small enough that it can bere-programmably closed. By managing this relationship, preferredembodiments having enhanced performance can be designed and fabricated.These goals may be accomplished with electrical and/or thermalengineering, or management, of the device.

The goal of providing sufficient electrical stimulation to the nanotubeelement can be accomplished with techniques known in the art. Inparticular, the conductive elements preferably provide relatively goodconduction of current into the nanotube element. The conductive elementsare preferably relatively good electrical conductors. For example, theconductive elements can be metal or some other kind of conductivematerial. Preferably, the conductive elements can be fabricated withprocessed and materials that are easily integrated into, or already usedin, existing fabrication methods. In at least the “closed” state, one orboth of the conductive elements is preferably in near-ohmic contact withthe nanotube element. Methods of fabricating near-ohmic contacts areknown.

The goal of potentially allowing a sufficient amount of heat to build upin the nanotube element so as to break contact between a nanotube and aconductor, in response to an “open” stimulus, is somewhat morechallenging. Many materials that can be useful for conductive elements,e.g., that conduct electricity well, also conduct heat well. Forexample, metals generally conduct electricity well, and are convenientlyused in the fabrication of many embodiments of 2-TNS, but typically alsoconduct heat well. Materials that conduct heat well, e.g., good thermalconductors, may draw enough heat away from the nanotube element that theelement may not overheat in response to an “open” stimulation.Alternately, the nanotube element may only overheat in response to anundesirably large “open” stimulation. In order to fabricate a 2-TNS thatallows heat to build up in the nanotube element in response tosufficient (but not undesirably large) “open” stimulation, severalembodiments of are contemplated.

In some preferred embodiments, the nanotubes themselves may be thermallyengineered by selecting them to as to have features that areparticularly susceptible to breaking in response to an “open”stimulation. For example, as described above, some nanotubes may beselected to have certain modes that build up heat or couple to othermodes that break contact between the nanotube and a conductor. Thenanotubes may have defects that are easily broken by overheating. Insome embodiments, the nanotubes are pre-treated before deposition inorder to induce defects.

In some preferred embodiments, the conductive elements may be thermallyengineered by fabricating them from a material (or materials) thatconduct electricity relatively well, but conduct heat relatively poorly.For example, the material may have a relatively low thermalconductivity, a relatively high heat capacity, and/or a relatively lowthermal diffusion constant. For example, in some embodiments, dopedsemiconductors may be able to provide a sufficiently high “open”stimulation to the nanotube element, and withdraw a relatively lowamount of heat from the nanotube element. Other kinds of materialshaving this characteristic are contemplated, for example a conductivepolymer. Preferably the conductive elements supply a sufficientelectrical stimulus to “open” the switch, and at the same time do notsignificantly impede the buildup of heat in the nanotube element.

Additionally, in some preferred embodiments, the distance between thetwo conductive elements is relatively small, for example less than about250 nm. Switches having conductive elements spaced relatively far apart,and therefore have a relatively long nanotube element spanning thedistance between them, have been observed to have the tendency torequire relatively large “erase” stimuli in order to change the deviceto an “open” state. Switches with a relatively large spacing between theconductive elements tend to have a higher resistance between theconductive elements, and therefore have a lower current density throughthe nanotube element for a given erase voltage.

In general, the nanotube element may also be in physical contact withother materials in the 2-TNS besides the conductors, for example anunderlying insulator and an overlying passivation layer. These materialsmay withdraw heat from the nanotube element. In some preferredembodiments, one or more materials that contact the nanotube elementsmay be selected to be relatively poor thermal conductors, for examplehaving a sufficiently high heat capacity and/or a sufficiently lowthermal conductivity. In other words, the materials may transport heatpoorly, and may be good thermal insulators. This can be useful becausethe nanotube element may overheat more readily if materials in contactwith the element withdraw little heat from the element. For example, theinventors have found that including a preferred passivation layer overthe nanotube element can significantly reduce the level of stimulationrequired to “open” the 2-TNS, in addition to providing other benefits.By including a preferred passivation layer over the switch, in oneembodiment, the stimulation required to “open” the switch was reduced bya factor of two. In general, the inventors believe that it may bepreferable that one or more materials that contact the nanotube elementpreferably conduct heat relatively poorly, which may help heat to buildup in the nanotube element.

The inventors believe that preferred passivation layers can also beuseful for isolating components of the 2-TNS, e.g., the nanotube elementand/or conductive elements, from the environment. For example, water inthe air, or that adheres to the nanotube element, can etch the elementat high temperatures. If an “open” stimulation is applied to a bare2-TNS, overheating in the nanotube element may occur at a high enoughtemperature that any water at the element may sufficiently damage theelement so that it no longer conducts current well. This “opens” the2-TNS, but the switch cannot be subsequently “closed” because theconductive pathway provided by the nanotube element is irreversiblydamaged. If instead, the 2-TNS is passivated with a preferredpassivation layer, then the switch may be isolated from damaging waterand may be repeatedly “opened” and “closed.” It is preferable that anywater adhered to the 2-TNS is removed before deposition of thepassivation layer; otherwise the layer will simply trap water next tothe switch. It is also preferable that the passivation layer does notoutgas water, and is not permeable by water. It is also preferable thatthe passivation layer is not fabricated using a high power plasma, whichcan damage the nanotube element. Passivation layers may be made from anyappropriate material known in the CMOS industry, including, but notlimited to: PVDF (Polyvinylidene Fluoride), PSG (Phosphosilicate glass)oxide, Orion oxide, LTO (planarizing low temperature oxide) oxide,sputtered oxide or nitride, flowfill oxide, ALD (atomic layerdeposition) oxides. CVD (chemical vapor deposition) nitride also thesematerials may be used in conjunction with each other, i.e., a PVDF layeror mixture of PVDF and other copolymers may be placed on top of CNTs andthis complex may be capped with an ALD Al₂O₃ layer, however anynon-oxygen containing high temp polymers could be used as passivationlayers. In some preferred embodiments passivation materials such as PVDFmay be mixed or formulated with other organic or dielectric materials ascopolymers such as PC7 to generate specific passivation properties suchas to impart extended lifetime and reliability.

Passivation of NRAM devices may be used to facilitate device operationin air, at room temperature, and as a protecting layer in conjunctionwith stacked material layers on top on the NRAM device. Operation ofunpassivated NRAM devices are typically performed in an inert ambient,such as argon, nitrogen, or helium, or an elevated (greater than 125 C)sample temperature to remove adsorbed water from the exposed nanotubes.Therefore, the requirements of a passivation film are typically twofold.First, the passivation should form an effective moisture barrier,preventing exposure of the nanotubes to water. Second, the passivationfilm should not interfere with the switching mechanism of the NRAMdevice.

One approach to passivation involves cavities, which have beenfabricated around the NRAM devices to provide a sealed switching region.Cavities both around individual devices (device-level passivation) andaround an entire die of 22 devices (die-level passivation) have beendemonstrated. However, the process flow to fabricate is complicated,with at least 2 additional lithography steps, and at least 2 additionaletching steps required.

Another approach to passivation involves depositing a suitabledielectric layer over the NRAM devices. An example of this approach isthe use of spin-coated polyvinyledenefluoride (PVDF) in direct contactwith the NRAM devices. The PVDF is patterned into either die-level (overan entire die active region) or device-level patches (individual patchescovering individual devices). Then a suitable secondary dielectricpassivation film, such an alumina or silicon dioxide is used to seal offthe PVDF and provide a passivation robust to NRAM operation. It isthought that NRAM operation thermally decomposes the overlying PVDF,hence a secondary passivation film is required to seal off the devices.Since the die level passivations are typically ˜100 micron squarepatches, this local decomposition can lead to ruptures of the secondarypassivation, exposure of NRAM devices to air, and their subsequentfailure. To avoid such failures of the secondary passivation film, thedie-level passivated devices are “burned-in” electrically by pulsing thedevices typically with 500 ns pulses from 4V to 8V in 0.5V steps. Thisis thought to controllably decompose the PVDF and prevent a rupture ofthe overlying secondary passivation film. After the burn-in procedurethe die-level passivated NRAM devices operate normally. Devicespassivated with a device-level PVDF coating and a secondary passivationfilm do not require such a burn in procedure and may be operated in airat room temperature directly at operating voltages. With device-levelpassivation the PVDF is patterned in the exact shape of the CNT fabric,typically 0.5 microns wide and 1-2 microns long. It is thought that suchsmall patches can decompose without stressing the secondary passivationfilm to failure. It is possible that for a given defect density in thesecondary passivation, there are no defects on average over the smallerfootprint of the device-level PVDF patches in comparison to the larger,die-level patches.

The inventors believe that in some preferred embodiments, the “open”stimulus applied by the stimulus circuit may be engineered in order toenhance the buildup of heat in the nanotube element. Applying arelatively large voltage to the switch is one example of engineering the“open” stimulus in one embodiment. In other embodiments, a series ofpulses may be applied to the switch, and the pulses may be spaced by atiming that is faster than the timescale of the transport of heat out ofthe nanotube element. The inventors believe that in this case, thepulses themselves do not necessarily have to have a large amplitude, butthe total amount of heat deposited in the nanotube element by the pulsesmay be sufficient to overheat and break the element.

The inventors believe that in some preferred embodiments, two-terminalnanotube switches may be thermally engineered by designing them so as tohave a “hot spot,” or thermal bottleneck, where one or more nanotubesmay be particularly susceptible to overheating. For example, asdescribed in greater detail below, the nanotube element can be made topartially overlap at least one conductor with a controlled geometricalrelationship, e.g., with a controlled overlap length. For example, bycontrolling the length of overlap to a length that is less than 100 nm,or less than 50 nm, the amount of heat that the conductor can withdrawfrom the nanotube element may be sufficiently lessened so as to possiblyallow rapid overheating of the nanotube element in one or morelocations. In contrast, an increased overlap length may inhibitoverheating by pulling heat out of the nanotube element.

For example, it has been observed that at least 10% more as-fabricatedswitches can be “opened” by limiting the overlap length to less than 50nm, as compared with more than 100 nm. Also, the times required to“open” the switch are significantly reduced for embodiments that have anoverlap length of less than 50 nm, which implies or suggests that thenanotube element may overheat more rapidly in response to “open”stimulation. For example, “open” times for as-fabricated switches withless than 50 nm overlap lengths may be on the order of 100 ns, and withgreater than 100 nm overlap lengths may be on the order of 1 millisecondor longer. Engineering may provide faster switching speeds, for exampleas fast as 1 nanosecond or faster. In general, arranging the nanotubeelement and one or more conductive elements with a specified geometricalrelationship may be useful for managing the thermal relationship betweenthe nanotube element and conductive elements. This, or otherarrangements, may create a thermal bottleneck, or “hot spot,” in the2-TNS, that may enhance the operation of the switch.

In summary, in one or more embodiments, thermal and/or electricalengineering, or management, can be used to enhance the performance of atwo-terminal nanotube switch. More than one of the described thermaland/or electrical engineering techniques described herein may be used atthe same time in the design and fabrication of a preferred two-terminalnanotube switch. For example, a switch can be fabricated having acontrolled overlap length to reduce the amount of heat that theconductive element can withdraw from the nanotube element, and theswitch can further be passivated with a preferred passivation layerwhich in some cases may include a mixture of copolymers.

It should be noted that while changes in the resistance of the switchdue to electrical stimulation have been repeatedly observed, that thecauses of these resistance changes are still being considered from botha theoretical and experimental standpoint. At the time of filing, it isthe inventors' belief that thermal effects as described herein may causeor contribute to the observed behavior. Other effects may also cause orcontribute the observed behavior.

FIG. 1B illustrates a cross sectional representation of nonvolatile2-terminal nanotube switch (2-TNS) 10′, in which thermal management isaccomplished by limiting the overlap between nanotube element 25′ andconductive element 20′. Nanotube element 25′ is disposed on substrate35′, which includes a layer of insulator 30′. Nanotube element 25′ isarranged to overlap by a predetermined extent at least a portion of atleast one of the terminals, e.g., conductive elements 15′ and 20′, whichare both deposited directly onto nanotube element 25′.

In this embodiment, nanotube element 25′ is patterned within a regionthat can be defined before or after deposition of conductive elements15′ and/or 20′. Conductive element 15′ overlaps one entire end-region ofnanotube element 25′, forming a near-ohmic contact. At the opposite endof nanotube element 25′, at overlap region 45′, conductive element 20′overlaps nanotube element 25′ by controlled overlap length 40′.Controlled overlap length 40′ may be in the range of 1 to 150 nm, or inthe range of 15-50 nm, for example. In one preferred embodiment,controlled overlap length 40′ is about 45 nm. The switch is thermallyand electrically managed to enhance the buildup of heat in the nanotubeelement by limiting the overlap nanotube element 25′ and conductiveelement 20′ so that heat flows poorly from the nanotube element into theconductive element, with a sufficiently long length of contact thatcurrent flows well from the conductive element into the nanotubeelement.

In one or more embodiments, one or more electrical characteristics ofswitch 10′ are a function of controlled overlap length 40′. For example,as described in greater detail below, the time required to erase and/orprogram switch 10′ is a function of controlled overlap length 40′.

FIGS. 2D through 2I show top-view SEM images of a few differentembodiments of functional two-terminal nanotube switches, fabricatedusing the materials, nanotube elements, and methods according to someembodiments described herein. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 2D, 2-TNS60D is fabricated on a layer of insulator 62D, disposed on a siliconsubstrate (not visible in this top view). Insulator 62D is about 20 nmof SiO₂, used as a bottom (back) gate. Conductive elements 70D and 75D,which correspond to conductive elements 15′ and 20′ respectively in FIG.1B, are palladium and have a thickness of about 100 nm. Conductiveelements 70D and 75D each have a width of about 400 nm, and have aseparation 85D of approximately 150 nm.

In the image, nanotube element 65D includes several nanotubes, whichappear in the right half of the image as light grey lines on the greybackground of insulator 62D. Conductive element 70D overlaps asubstantial portion of nanotube element 65D, resulting in conductiveelement 70D having a relatively rough texture in the image as comparedto the texture of conductive element 75D, which overlaps a limitedportion of nanotube element 65C as described in greater detail below.Conductive element 70D has striations such as that indicated by area55D, which are areas of the element that are raised due to the presenceof an underlying nanotube. Nanotube element 65D also can be seen toextend beyond the periphery of conductive element 70D. This feature doesnot affect the performance of the device, but conveniently allowsimaging and/or characterization of an exposed portion of nanotubeelement 65D.

Some of the nanotubes in nanotube element 65D can be seen to span thedistance 85D between conductive elements 70D and 75D. Conductive element75D overlaps nanotube element 65D in region 80D by a controlled overlaplength of about 17.4 nm, which corresponds to controlled overlap length40′ in FIG. 1B. Conductive elements 70D and 75D can be seen to havewhite borders, which is a charging artifact of the imaging process. Thisartifact obscures controlled overlap region 80D, which has a length thatis substantially smaller than the length of the artifact. However, asillustrated further below, some embodiments have overlap regions thatare large enough to be observed in an SEM micrograph.

The embodiment shown in FIG. 2E has a similar structure to theembodiment of FIG. 2D, with conductive elements 70E and 75E havingsimilar dimensions as the elements in FIG. 2D, but are instead separatedby a distance 85E of about 250 nm. The image is rotated by 90 degreesrelative to FIG. 2D. Here, conductive element 75E overlaps nanotubeelement 65E by about 38.6 nm in region 80E. Despite the substantialdifferences between distances 80D and 80E, and 65D and 65E, theembodiments shown in FIGS. 2D and 2E operate comparably. The embodimentshown in FIG. 2F is similar to the embodiments shown in FIGS. 2D and 2E,but with conductive elements 70F and 75F separated by a distance ofabout 250 nm. Here, conductive element 75F overlaps nanotube element 65Fby about 84.9 nm. The embodiment shown in FIG. 2G is similar to theembodiments shown in FIGS. 2D-2F, but with conductive elements 70G and75G separated by a distance of about 150 nm. Here, conductive element75G overlaps nanotube element 65G by about 90.5 nm.

The embodiment shown in FIG. 2G is similar to the embodiments shown inFIGS. 2D-2G, but with conductive elements 70H and 75H separated by adistance of about 150 nm. Here, conductive element 75H overlaps nanotubeelement 65H by about 104 nm. In this figure, conductive element 75H canbe seen to have a significantly roughened texture in region 80H whereelement 75H overlaps nanotube element 65H. The texture is comparable tothat of conductive element 70H, which overlaps a large portion ofnanotube element 65H, but region 80H is limited to 104 nm. Theembodiment shown in FIG. 2I has a similar structure to that in FIG. 2H,but conductive element 75I overlaps nanotube element 65I in region 80Iby about 136 nm. Here conductive element 75I can again be seen to have asignificantly roughened texture in region 80I as compared with the restof the element, which does not overlap nanotube element 65I. Thisroughened texture results from nanotubes underlying the material ofelement 75I.

All of the embodiments illustrated in 2D-2I are functional switches,wherein thermal management is accomplished by arranging the nanotubeelement and a conductive element with a specified geometricalrelationship, e.g., a controlled overlap length. In some of theembodiments it was found that the controlled overlap length affected theyield of the as-fabricated working switches, e.g., the percentage ofas-fabricated switches of a particular embodiment that functionedproperly. For example, it was found that about 10-20% feweras-fabricated switches of embodiments that had overlap lengths ofgreater than 100 nm functioned properly, as compared with as-fabricatedswitches of embodiments that had overlap lengths of less than 50 nm.Methods of testing 2-TNS are described in greater detail below.

The voltages, currents, and resistances listed here are meant to beexamples of appropriate values for a particular embodiment; appropriatevalues may be different for one or more other embodiments.

In certain applications, it may be desirable to overlap the nanotubeelement with conductive elements in geometries that are different thanthe embodiments shown in FIG. 1A-1B or 2D-2I in order to thermallyengineer the switch. For example, it may be desirable to position thenanotube element above, below, or even on vertical sides of the contactelements. In general any configuration that provides a specifiedgeometry sufficient to allow the described switching behavior in thedevice can be employed. In particular, the conductive elements should bearranged to provide a sufficient electrical stimulation to the nanotubeelement, and at the same time the switch as a whole should havesufficient thermal management to allow overheating that breaks contactbetween a nanotube in the nanotube element and a conductor in thepathway of the switch.

It should be understood that the rest of the embodiments describedherein include a stimulus circuit in contact with the conductiveelements, e.g., stimulus circuit 100 of FIGS. 1A and 1B, although it isnot illustrated. It should also be understood that although many of thedescribed embodiments illustrate two-terminal nanotube switches whereinthermal management is accomplished by limiting the overlap between ananotube element and a conductive element, e.g., a terminal, othermethods of thermal management can be used. For example, in someembodiments the nanotube element can partially or fully overlap one orboth conductive elements and the materials in the switch can be selectedso as to ensure a sufficient buildup of heat within at least a portionof the nanotube element.

FIG. 3A illustrates switch 900A, which is a variation of 2-TNS 10′illustrated in FIG. 1B and is fabricated using preferred methods. Inthis embodiment, conductive element 905 overlaps the top and sides ofnanotube element 920, forming a near-ohmic contact, and also fills viahole 910 in insulator 915. This connects nanotube element 920 to anelectrode (not shown) below insulator 915. Conductive element 970overlaps the top and side of nanotube element 920 over controlledoverlap length 901.

FIG. 3B illustrates switch 900B, which is another variation of 2-TNS 10′illustrated in FIG. 1B and is fabricated using preferred methods. Inthis embodiment, conductive element 935 overlaps the bottom of nanotubeelement 945, forming a near-ohmic contact, and fills via hole 940 ininsulator 915. This connects nanotube element 945 to an electrode (notshown) below insulator 915. Conductive element 975 overlaps the top andside of nanotube element 920 over controlled overlap length 903.

FIG. 3C illustrates switch 900C, which is another variation of 2-TNS 10′in FIG. 1B and is fabricated using preferred methods. In thisembodiment, upper conductive element 950 and lower conductive element955 in contact with each other, and overlap the top, bottom, and sidesurfaces of nanotube element 965 forming a near-ohmic contact. Lowercontact element 955 fills via hole 960 in insulator 915. This connectsnanotube element 965 to an electrode (not shown) below insulator 915.Conductive element 980 overlaps the top and side of nanotube element 965by controlled overlap length 907.

Upper and lower conductive elements 950 and 955 are illustrated asextending beyond an end of nanotube element 965. Upper and lowerconductive elements 950 and 955 are in contact with each other, as wellas in near-ohmic contact with nanotube element 965, in the region ofnanotube element 965 because nanotube element 965 is porous, typicallymore than 90% porous. Upper and lower conductive elements 950 and 955fill at least some of the pores in nanotube element 965. Therefore, inan alternative embodiment, upper and lower conductive elements 950 and955 need not extend beyond an end of nanotube element 965 to in order tocontact nanotube element 965 and each other.

FIG. 3D illustrates switch 900D, which is another variation of 2-TNS 10′in FIG. 1B and is fabricated using preferred methods. In thisembodiment, upper conductive element 950 and lower conductive element955 in contact with each other, and overlap the top, bottom, and sidesurfaces of nanotube element 965 forming a near-ohmic contact. Lowercontact element 955 fills via hole 960 in insulator 915. This connectsnanotube element 965 to an electrode (not shown) below insulator 915.Upper conductive element 980 and lower conductive element 985 in contactwith each other, and overlap the top, bottom, and side surfaces ofnanotube element 965 by controlled overlap length 907.

FIG. 3E illustrates switch 900E, which is a variation of 2-TNS 10 inFIG. 1A and is fabricated using preferred methods. In this embodiment,upper conductive element 950 and lower conductive element 955 in contactwith each other, and overlap the top, and bottom surfaces of nanotubeelement 965 forming a near-ohmic contact. Material in elements 950 and955 fill at least some of the pores in nanotube element 965. Lowercontact element 955 fills via hole 960 in insulator 915. This connectsnanotube element 965 to an electrode (not shown) below insulator 915.Upper conductive element 951 and lower conductive element 956 in contactwith each other, and overlap the top and bottom surfaces of nanotubeelement 965 by controlled overlap length 907. Material in elements 951and 956 fill at least some of the pores in nanotube element 965. In thisembodiment, thermal management is accomplished not by having acontrolled overlap length between the nanotube element and a conductiveelement, but by one or more other thermal management techniquesdescribed herein.

FIG. 4 illustrates a cross sectional representation of anotherembodiment of a nonvolatile two terminal nanotube switch (2-TNS) 2500.In this embodiment, conductive elements 2515 and 2520 are both depositeddirectly onto the surface of insulator 2530 and patterned. Insulator2522 fills in regions between patterned conductive elements 2515 and2520, and is planarized. Nanotube element 2525 is conformally depositedover conductive elements 2515 and 2520, overlapping at least a portionof the top surfaces of conductors 2515 and 2520, as well as the topsurface of insulator 2522, all of which are supported by substrate 2535.At one end, nanotube element 2525 overlaps the top surface of conductiveelement 2515, forming a near-ohmic contact. At an opposing end, nanotubeelement 2525 contacts the top surface of contact element 2520 bycontrolled overlap length 2540.

FIG. 5 illustrates a cross sectional representation of anotherembodiment of a nonvolatile 2-terminal nanotube switch (2-TNS) 2200. Inthis embodiment, conductive elements 2215 and 2220 are both depositeddirectly onto the surface of insulator 2230 and patterned. Conductiveelement 2220 has thickness T1, which may range in thickness from 5 to500 nm, for example. Nanotube element 2225 is conformally deposited overconductive elements 2215 and 2220, contacting the top and side surfacesof the elements as well as the top surface of insulator 2230, which issupported by substrate 2235. Nanotube element 2225 is then patternedusing conventional photolithographic techniques as described in greaterdetail below, such that it overlaps the entire top and side walls ofconductive element 2215, forming a near-ohmic contact. Nanotube element2225 overlaps conductive element 2220 at sidewall contact region 2240,yielding a controlled overlap of approximately length T1. Nanotubeelement 2225 also overlaps the top of conductive element 2220 by acontrolled overlap length 2245, which may be defined lithographically asdescribed in greater detail below. The total controlled overlap length2250 is approximately defined by the sum of the length T1 of sidewallcontact region 2240 and overlap length 2245.

FIG. 6 illustrates a cross sectional view of one embodiment of thepresent invention. The structure shown in FIG. 6 is analogous to thestructure in the micrograph shown in FIG. 2C and has the same elements;a silicon substrate 63C, an insulator 62C, a nanofabric element 65,first and second conductive elements 70C and 75C, respectively, anoverlap region 80D and shown in FIG. 6, but absent from FIG. 2C is apassivation layer 64. The insulator 62C is disposed above the siliconsubstrate 63C and below nanotube element 65. First and second conductiveelements 70C and 75C respectively sit partially atop insulator layer 62Cand nanotube element 65. First conductive element 70C overlaps nanotubeelement 65 in overlap region 80C and passivation layer 64 is disposedover conductive elements 70C and 75C and nanotube element 65.

The described embodiments may be fabricated using the materials andmethods as described for FIGS. 1A-1B and 2A-2I. Further details offabricating two-terminal nanotube switching elements and devicesincluding same are described in greater detail below. Several additionalembodiments, and methods of making them, are also described below.

Many of the embodiments described herein illustrate two-terminalnanotube switches wherein thermal management is accomplished byoverlapping the nanotube element with a conductive element by acontrolled overlap length. However, it should be understood that theembodiments described herein may also, or alternately, be thermallymanaged by other techniques. The embodiments described herein have thecommon features of a nanotube article having at least one nanotube thatis arranged to overlap at least a portion of each of two terminals. Somepreferred embodiments are thermally and/or electrically managed, orengineered, in order to enhance one or more properties of the switch.For example, in some preferred embodiments the nanotube overlaps oneterminal, forming a near-ohmic contact, and overlaps another terminal bya controlled overlap length. In some preferred embodiments, one or morematerials in the switch, for example the nanotubes, conductive elements,insulator layers, and/or passivation layers which in many preferredembodiments may include copolymers or a mixture of layers, are selectedin order to enhance the buildup of heat in the nanotube element.

A stimulus circuit in electrical communication with at least one of theterminals of embodiments of the two-terminal nanotube switch can be usedto change the switch from a relatively high resistance “erased” or“open” state to a relatively low resistance “programmed” or “closed”state. The circuit can also be used to measure the resistance betweenthe two terminals, and determine the state of the switch, in anon-destructive read-out (NDRO) operation.

Fabricating 2-Terminal Nanotube Switches with Controlled Overlap Regions

In embodiments of two-terminal nanotube switches where thermalmanagement is accomplished by arranging a nanotube element and aconductive element with a specified geometrical relationship, e.g., acontrolled overlap length, accurately controlling that relationship canenhance the performance of the switch. Some characteristics ofnonvolatile 2-terminal nanotube switches (2-TNS) may be a function,among other things, of the controlled overlap length, for example region40′ of switch 10′ illustrated in FIG. 1B. Several methods will bedescribed for fabricating controlled overlap lengths of a specifiedgeometry. Several additional embodiments, and methods of making them,will also be described. In some embodiments, the controlled overlaplength is a dimension of the conductive element, for example, the widthor thickness of the conductive element. In general, overlap lengthsbetween 1-150 nm, and preferably 15-50 nm, can be fabricated usingtechniques described herein.

To fabricate a controlled overlap length between a nanotube element anda conductive element, some methods use preferred fabrication methodswith a horizontally oriented nanotube element and a timed etch with wellcontrolled etch concentrations and temperature. This method exposes acontrolled length of the nanotube element, which can be overlapped witha conductive element. This length corresponds to controlled overlaplength 40′ in FIG. 1B, although the particular embodiment or embodimentsmay have a different geometrical relationship between the nanotubeelement and conductive element than is shown in FIG. 1B.

Other methods use preferred fabrication methods with a horizontallyoriented nanotube element and a sidewall spacer having a well controlledfilm layer thickness, which is removed after defining the nanotubeelement to expose a controlled length of the element, which can beoverlapped with a conductive element. This length corresponds tocontrolled overlap length 40′ in FIG. 1B, although the particularembodiment or embodiments may have a different geometrical relationshipbetween the nanotube element and conductive element than is shown inFIG. 1B.

Other methods use preferred fabrication methods based onphotolithography with nanotube elements that conform to horizontalfeatures, and in some cases additionally conform to vertical features,of one or more conductive elements. In cases where nanotube elementsconform to horizontal features, the elements are disposed on andlithographically patterned to overlap one conductive element by acontrolled overlap length. This length corresponds to length 40′ in FIG.1B, though in this embodiment the nanotube element can have a differentgeometrical relationship with the conductive element. In cases where thenanotube element additionally conforms to a vertical feature of aconductive element, the nanotube element may contact the verticalfeature of the conductive element over a length defined by the thicknessof that feature, and may contact the horizontal feature over a lengththat is lithographically defined. The vertical and horizontal lengthstogether define a controlled overlap length that corresponds to length40′ in FIG. 1B, although the particular embodiment or embodiments mayhave a different geometrical relationship between the nanotube elementand conductive element than is shown in FIG. 1B.

The general procedure for fabricating 2-TNS, and devices based on a2-TNS, is illustrated in FIG. 7. FIG. 7 is a high-level flow diagram ofthe basic method 800 of fabricating preferred embodiments of theinvention. 2-TNS can be fabricated by first providing an initialstructure (step 802), on which a nanotube element and possiblyconductive elements will later be formed. In a simple embodiment, theinitial structure is a substrate on which all elements of the 2-TNS willlater be formed. In some embodiments, the initial structure is apartially fabricated, planarized, semiconductor structure with devicelevel definition, with metal filled via holes (studs) providingconductive paths between transistor terminals and the planarized surfaceof the resulting partially fabricated semiconductor structure. In someembodiments, the initial structure includes both conductive elements. Insome embodiments, the initial structure even includes a nanofabric thathas not yet been formed into a nanotube element. In general, structuresthat do not yet have a defined nanotube element can be consideredinitial structures. “Initial structure” is not intended to be a limitingterm but rather a point of reference in the fabrication of 2-TNS.

2-TNS can be fabricated by next providing an intermediate structure(step 804). An intermediate structure is characterized in someembodiments by having a defined nanotube element on a surface of theinitial structure (provided in step 802). As illustrated further below,in some embodiments an intermediate structure has a nanotube elementoverlapping and in near-ohmic contact with one conductive element. Insome embodiments an intermediate structure has a nanotube elementoverlapping a conductive element by a controlled overlap length. Thislength may, for example, be in the range of 1 to 150 nm. “Intermediatestructure” is not intended to be a limiting term but rather a point ofreference in the fabrication of 2-TNS.

2-TNS can be fabricated by next providing a final structure (step 806).In some embodiments, the final structure is a completely fabricated2-TNS. This 2-TNS could be used in wired nonvolatile random accessmemory arrays as shown further below. Some embodiments of finalstructures may include memory array on-pitch circuits, peripheral andother circuit wiring, chip passivation, input and output pads; thesefeatures and their fabrication are not shown, as they use well knownindustry fabrication methods. “Final structure” is not intended to be alimiting term but rather a point of reference in the fabrication of2-TNS.

Methods that Utilize a Controlled Etch to Fabricate a 2-TNS

The embodiment illustrated in FIG. 3B may be fabricated using thetimed-etch methods illustrated in FIGS. 8A-8F. Referring to FIG. 8A,preferred methods deposit a layer of insulator 1000 on an underlyingstructure (not shown). Conductive element 1005, in via hole 1010, formsa conductive path between nanofabric 1015 and a conductor (not shown)below insulator 1000. Insulator 1000 and conductive element 1005correspond to insulator 915 and conductive element 935, respectively, inFIG. 3B. Insulator 1000 may be Si_(x)N_(y), Al₂O₃, or other suitableinsulating material, for example, having a thickness in the range of 5to 200 nm, for example, deposited using well known industry techniqueson a planar surface (not shown). Next, preferred methods deposit andpattern insulator 1020, SiO₂ for example, of thickness 5 to 50 nm, forexample as illustrated in FIG. 8A. Insulator 1020 is patterned usingwell known industry techniques. The resulting assembly can be consideredan initial structure.

Next, preferred methods form and pattern nanofabric 1015, usinginsulator 1020 as a mask, forming nanotube element 1025 as illustratedin FIG. 8B. Methods of forming and patterning nanofabric to formnanotube elements are described in the incorporated patent references.Next, preferred methods perform a controlled isotropic etch selective toinsulator 1020 as illustrated in FIG. 8C. Insulator 1020 lateral andvertical dimensions are reduced by this controlled etch, removinginsulator region 1030. This reduces insulator 1020 dimensions by, forexample, 1 to 150 nm in all directions, depending on the characteristicsof the etch. This exposes nanotube element 1025 in region 1050 bycontrolled length 1035, for example in the range of 1 to 150 nm, withcorresponding insulator 1040 of reduced dimensions as illustrated inFIG. 8D.

Next, preferred methods deposit conductor 1045 as illustrated in FIG. 8Ewith conductor 1045 in contact with the exposed region 1050 of nanotubeelement 1025. Conductor 1045 may be have a thickness in the range of 5to 500 nm, and may be composed of metal such as Ru, Ti, Cr, Al, Au, Pd,Ni, W, Cu, Mo, Ag, In, Ir, Pb, Sn, as well as other suitable metals, andcombinations of these. Metal alloys such as TiAu, TiCu, TiPd, PbIn, andTiW, other suitable conductors, including CNTs themselves (singlewalled, multiwalled, and/or double walled, for example), or conductivenitrides, oxides, or silicides such as RuN, RuO, TiN, TaN, CoSi_(x) andTiSi_(x) may be used. Other kinds of conductor, and semiconductor,materials can also be used.

Then, preferred methods use well known industry techniques to patternconductor 1045 to provide conductive element 1055 as illustrated in FIG.8F. Conductive element 1055 overlaps nanotube element 1025 in exposedregion 1050. Controlled overlap length 1035 illustrated in FIG. 8F is inthe range of 1 to 150 nm, for example, and corresponds to controlledoverlap length 40 illustrated in FIG. 1 although in this embodiment thenanotube element 1025 and conductive element 1055 have a differentgeometrical relationship. The structure shown in FIG. 8F can beconsidered a final structure. The structure can also be included inother devices as described in greater detail below.

A different route to the intermediate structure illustrated in FIG. 8Dmay be taken using the directional etch methods illustrated in FIGS.9A-9C. FIG. 9A illustrates the initial structure of shown in FIG. 8A,including nanofabric 1115 and further including a conformal sacrificiallayer 1122 such as silicon for example, using well known industrytechniques. The thickness of layer 1122 is well-controlled, and can befor example in the range of 1 to 150 nm. Preferred methods of thicknesscontrol are used because in a later step, the film thickness ofconformal sacrificial layer 1122 will determine a controlled overlaplength between a nanotube element and a conductive element. The assemblyof FIG. 9A can be considered an initial structure.

Next, preferred methods directionally etch conformal sacrificial layer1122 using well known industry methods such as RIE, for example, leavingsidewall regions 1130 as illustrated in FIG. 9B. Next, preferred methodspattern nanofabric 1115, using insulator 1120 and sidewall spacers 1130together as a mask. This forms nanotube element 1125 as illustrated inFIG. 9B. Methods of depositing and patterning nanofabric to formnanotube elements are described in the incorporated patent references.

Next, preferred methods etch (remove) the remaining sidewall spacers1130 using well known industry techniques, exposing nanotube element1125 in region 1150 as illustrated in FIG. 9C. At this point in theprocess, the intermediate structure illustrated in FIG. 9C correspondsto the intermediate structure illustrated in FIG. 8D. Insulators 1000and 1100, conductive elements 1005 and 1105, nanotube elements 1025 and1125, insulators 1040 and 1120, and controlled overlap lengths 1035 and1135 correspond to each other respectively. The method continues asdescribed above with respect to FIGS. 8E and 8F to form nonvolatile2-terminal nanotube switch (2-TNS) 1070 illustrated in FIG. 8F.

Another embodiment, and a method of fabricating it using a timed etchprocedure to form a controlled overlap region between a nanotube elementand a conductive element, is illustrated in FIGS. 10A-10I. Initialstructure 1600 is created or supplied as shown in FIG. 10A, having asubstrate 1602 that may be silicon or any appropriate material (orcombination of materials). Insulator 1604, disposed on substrate 1602,may be made from silicon nitride or any appropriate material. A metalplug 1608 is disposed with a portion of substrate 1602 and insulator1604, so that its top surface is approximately planar with insulator1604. Nanofabric 1610 is applied to structure 1600, forming intermediatestructure 1612, as illustrated in FIG. 10B. Methods for applyingnanofabric 1610 are described in the incorporated patent references andwill not be described here for the sake of brevity.

Oxide layer 1614 is applied to the intermediate structure 1612 of FIG.10B, forming intermediate structure 1616 in FIG. 10C. A resist coat 1618is applied to intermediate structure 1616 and patterned, leavingintermediate structure 1620 as illustrated in FIG. 10D. Regions 1619 ofnanofabric 1610 are exposed in structure 1620. Then intermediatestructure 1620 is exposed to a dry etch procedure to remove exposednanofabric regions 1619, forming nanotube element 1650. Then theremaining resist is removed, forming intermediate structure 1622 shownin FIG. 10E. Intermediate structure 1622 is exposed to a wet etchprocedure to remove some of oxide layer 1614 (as shown by dotted linesin FIG. 10E), leaving remaining oxide 1624 and exposed nanotube elementregion 1626. Region 1626 can have a length, for example, of 1-150 nm.Intermediate structure 1628 is shown in FIG. 10F.

As shown in FIG. 10G, conductive material 1630 is then deposited overintermediate structure 1628. Photoresist 1632 is deposited overconductive material 1630 and patterned to leave a region of resist 1632above exposed nanotube element region 1626, thus forming intermediatestructure 1634. Conductive material 1630 and resist 1632 are exposed toappropriate etch procedures, leaving remaining conductive element 1636.Conductive element 1636 overlaps nanotube element 1650 at region 1638,to form intermediate structure 1640, as illustrated in FIG. 10H.

A layer 1642, which in certain embodiments may be composed of acopolymer or other mixtures of materials, is applied to intermediatestructure 1640, which may be intermetal dielectric, forming finalstructure 1644 as shown in FIG. 10G. Note that insulating layer 1604 mayact as a passivation layer preseal.

Methods that Utilize Lithography to Fabricate a 2-TNS

A method that does not rely on a controlled etch, but rather useslithographic techniques to form a controlled contact overlap region, isillustrated in FIGS. 11A-11C. A method of fabricating the embodiment ofFIG. 4, using lithographic techniques, is illustrated in FIGS. 11A-11C.Referring to FIG. 11A, preferred methods deposit and pattern conductiveelements 2605 and 2610 on substrate 2600. Substrate 2600 may includesemiconducting devices, polysilicon gates and interconnections, metallicwiring layers and studs for contacting other layers. Conductive elements2605 and 2610 may have a well-controlled thickness in the range of 5 to500 nm, and may be composed of metals such as Ru, Ti, Cr, Al, Au, Pd,Ni, W, Cu, Mo, Ag, In, Ir, Pb, Sn, as well as other suitable metals, andcombinations of these. Metal alloys such as TiAu, TiCu, TiPd, PbIn, andTiW, other suitable conductors, including CNTs themselves (singlewalled, multiwalled, and/or double walled, for example), or conductivenitrides, oxides, or silicides such as RuN, RuO, TiN, TaN, CoSi_(x) andTiSi_(x) may be used. Other kinds of conductor, and semiconductor,materials can also be used. Preferred methods of patterning conductiveelements 2605 and 2610 may use well known photolithographic techniquesand/or well known etching techniques, such as reactive ion etching(RIE).

Next, still referring to FIG. 11A, preferred methods deposit andplanarize insulator 2622 using known fabrication techniques. Insulator2622 fills regions between conductive elements 2605 and 2610. Next,still referring to FIG. 11A, preferred methods conformally depositnanofabric 2615 over contact elements 2605 and 2610, and insulator 2622.Methods for applying nanofabric 2615 are described in the incorporatedpatent references and will not be described here for the sake ofbrevity. The assembly in FIG. 11A can be considered an initialstructure.

Next, preferred methods deposit, pattern, and align photolithographiclayer 2620 on nanofabric 2615, using known semiconductor industryfabrication methods, as illustrated in FIG. 11B. The relative alignmentof patterned photolithographic layer 2620 and conductive element 2610determines the controlled overlap length between a nanotube element andthe conductive element, as described further below. FIG. 11B can beconsidered an intermediate structure.

Next, preferred methods pattern nanofabric 2615, using patternedphotolithographic layer 2620 as a mask. This forms nanotube 2625 asillustrated in FIG. 11C, and completes the fabrication of two-terminalswitch 2670, which corresponds to switch 2500 illustrated in FIG. 4.Next, preferred methods deposit a protective insulating layer (notshown) using well known insulators such as SiO₂, Si_(x)N_(y), Al₂O₃, andother well known insulators used in semiconductor fabrication

2-TNS 2670 includes nanotube element 2625 which overlaps the top ofconductive element 2605, forming a near-ohmic contact. Nanotube element2625 overlaps conductive element 2610 over a controlled overlap length2640 that may range in length from 1 to 150 nm, for example. Overlaplength 2640 is determined by the alignment of patternedphotolithographic layer 2620 with respect to conductive element 2610.

The embodiment of FIG. 5 may be fabricated, using lithographictechniques and a conformal nanotube element, as shown in FIGS. 12A-13.Referring to FIG. 12A, preferred methods deposit and pattern conductiveelements 2305 and 2310 on substrate 2300. Substrate 2300 may includesemiconducting devices, polysilicon gates and interconnections, metallicwiring layers and studs for contacting other layers as illustratedfurther below. Elements 2305 and 2310 may have a well-controlledthickness in the range of 5 to 500 nm, and may be composed of metalssuch as Ru, Ti, Cr, Al, Au, Pd, Ni, W, Cu, Mo, Ag, In, Ir, Pb, Sn, aswell as other suitable metals, and combinations of these. Metal alloyssuch as TiAu, TiCu, TiPd, PbIn, and TiW, other suitable conductors,including CNTs themselves (single walled, multiwalled, and/or doublewalled, for example), or conductive nitrides, oxides, or silicides suchas RuN, RuO, TiN, TaN, CoSi_(x) and TiSi_(x) may be used. Other kinds ofconductor, and semiconductor, materials can also be used. Preferredmethods of patterning conductive elements 2305 and 2310 may use wellknown photolithographic techniques and well known etching techniques,such as reactive ion etching (RIE).

Next, still referring to FIG. 12A, preferred methods conformally depositnanofabric 2315 over conductive elements 2305 and 2310, overlapping topand side surfaces of elements 2305 and 2310, as well as a portion of thetop surface of substrate 2300. Methods of forming and patterningnanofabric are described in the incorporated patent references. Theassembly illustrated in FIG. 12A can be considered an initial structure.

Next, preferred methods deposit, pattern, and align photolithographiclayer 2320 on nanofabric 2315 using known semiconductor industryfabrication methods as illustrated in FIG. 12B. The relative alignmentof patterned photolithographic layer 2320 and conductive element 2310determines the controlled overlap length between a nanotube element andconductive element 2310 as described further below. The assemblyillustrated in FIG. 12B can be considered an intermediate structure.

Next, preferred methods pattern the nanofabric 2315, using patternedphotolithographic layer 2320 as a mask. This forms nanotube element 2325as illustrated in FIG. 13, and completes the fabrication of nonvolatiletwo-terminal nanotube switch 2370 which corresponds switch 2200illustrated in FIG. 5. Next, preferred methods deposit a protectiveinsulating layer (not shown) using well known insulators such as SiO₂,SiN, Al₂O₃, and other well known insulators used in semiconductorfabrication.

As discussed above regarding corresponding FIG. 5, nanotube element 2325overlaps conductive element 2310 in region 2350, which is defined bysidewall overlap region 2340 (having a length approximately the same asthickness T1 of conductive element 2310) and controlled overlap length2345, for example 1-150 nm.

In the embodiment illustrated in FIGS. 12A-13, the total length by whichnanotube element 2325 overlaps two surfaces of conductive element 2310defines a controlled overlap region. However, in other embodiments,nanotube element 2325 could feasibly contact more than two surfaces of aconductive element 2310 to define a controlled overlap region, thelength of which may affect one or more electrical characteristics of theresulting 2-TNS switch.

Fabricating Dense 2-Terminal Nanotube Switches with Controlled OverlapRegions

While the above-described embodiments are 2-TNS that are relativelydense (i.e. many can be fabricated in a small area), even denserscalable nonvolatile nanotube two terminal switches are possible. Somemethods for fabricating dense switches use preferred fabrication methodsto fabricate a picture frame structure, which provides for dense 2-TNSthat can are useful in many applications.

Other described methods for fabricating dense switches use preferredfabrication methods with vertically oriented nanotube elements. Inthese, spacing between the conductive elements is controlled by a filmthickness instead of by photolithographic means. The thickness of aremovable (or sacrificial) film is used to define a controlled overlaplength between a vertically-oriented nanotube element and a conductiveelement. Alternately, the thickness of a conductive element itselfdefines a controlled overlap length.

Methods that Fabricate a Picture Frame Design 2-TNS

An embodiment that provides for relatively dense 2-TNS is a pictureframe design. A picture frame design has symmetric features that can bescaled in proportion to the metal ground rules that define eachtechnology generation. Picture frame design techniques for nanotubethree terminal structures are described in U.S. patent application Ser.No. 10/864,186, entitled “Non-volatile Electromechanical Field EffectDevices and Circuits using Same and Methods of Manufacturing Same” andfiled Jun. 9, 2004, and in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/936,119,entitled “Patterned Nanoscopic Articles and Methods of Making the Same”and filed Sep. 8, 2004. A picture frame design example for nonvolatilenanotube two terminal switches is described further below with respectto FIGS. 14A-14J.

Referring to FIG. 14A, preferred methods deposit insulator 1800 on anunderlying structure (not shown). Conductive element 1805, in via hole1810, forms a conductive path between nanofabric 1815 and a conductor(not shown) below insulator 1800. At this point the initial structure issimilar to a portion of that shown in FIG. 3B. For example, insulator1800 and conductive element 1805 in FIG. 14A correspond to insulator 915and conductive element 935, respectively, in FIG. 3B. However in thisembodiment, conductive element 1805 is designed to be at the center of apicture frame switch as illustrated further below, as opposed to at theend of a nanotube element. Insulator 1800 may be SiN, Al₂O₃, or othersuitable insulating material, for example, having a thickness in therange of 5 to 200 nm, for example, deposited using well known industrytechniques on a planar surface (not shown). The assembly shown in FIG.14A can be considered an initial structure.

Next, preferred methods deposit and pattern optional conductive element1807 as illustrated in FIG. 14B. Optional element 1807 can provide anear-ohmic contact with improved resistance between nanofabric 1815 andconductive element 1805. Optional element 1807 may be metal such as Ru,Ti, Cr, Al, Au, Pd, Ni, W, Cu, Mo, Ag, In, Ir, Pb, Sn, as well as othersuitable metals, and combinations of these. Metal alloys such as TiAu,TiCu, TiPd, PbIn, and TiW, other suitable conductors, including CNTsthemselves (single walled, multiwalled, and/or double walled, forexample), or conductive nitrides, oxides, or silicides such as RuN, RuO,TiN, TaN, CoSi_(x) and TiSi_(x) may be used. Other kinds of conductor,and semiconductor, materials can also be used.

Next, preferred methods deposit and pattern insulator 1820, SiO₂ forexample, of thickness 5 to 50 nm, for example as illustrated in FIG.14C. Insulator 1820 is patterned using well known industry techniques.

Next, preferred methods deposit and pattern a conformal sacrificiallayer 1822, such as silicon for example, as illustrated in FIG. 14D.Layer 1822 has a well-controlled thickness, for example in the range of1 to 150 nm, controlled using well known industry techniques. Preferredmethods of thickness control are used because the thickness of conformalsacrificial layer 1822 will determine the controlled overlap lengthbetween a nanotube element and conductive element, later in the process.

Next, preferred methods directionally etch conformal sacrificial layer1822 using well known industry methods such as RIE, for example, leavingsidewall regions 1830 as illustrated in FIG. 14E.

Next, preferred methods pattern nanofabric 1815, using insulator 1820and sidewall spacers 1830 as a mask, forming nanotube element 1825 asillustrated in FIG. 14F. Methods of patterning nanofabrics to formnanotube elements are described in the incorporated patent references.

Next, preferred methods etch (remove) the remaining sidewall spacers1830 using well known industry techniques, exposing nanotube element1825 in region 1835 as illustrated in FIG. 14G.

Next, preferred methods deposit conductor 1845 as illustrated in FIG.14H. Conductor 1845 overlaps exposed regions 1835 of nanotube element1825 as illustrated in FIG. 14H. Conductor 1845 may be have a thicknessin the range of 5 to 500 nm, and may be composed of metals such as Ru,Ti, Cr, Al, Au, Pd, Ni, W, Cu, Mo, Ag, In, Ir, Pb, Sn, as well as othersuitable metals, and combinations of these. Metal alloys such as TiAu,TiCu, TiPd, PbIn, and TiW, other suitable conductors, including CNTsthemselves (single walled, multiwalled, and/or double walled, forexample), or conductive nitrides, oxides, or silicides such as RuN, RuO,TiN, TaN, CoSi_(x) and TiSi_(x) may be used. Other kinds of conductor,and semiconductor, materials can also be used. The assemblies shown inFIGS. 14B-14H can be considered intermediate structures.

Then, preferred methods use well known industry techniques to patternconductor 1845 to form conductive element 1855 as illustrated in FIG.14I. Conductive element 1855 overlaps nanotube element 1825 in exposedregion 1835 by a controlled overlap length 1860. Overlap length 1860 isin the range, for example, of 1 to 150 nm. Although this embodiment hasa different geometrical relationship between the conductive element andnanotube switch, controlled overlap length 1860 corresponds length 40′illustrated in FIG. 1B.

FIG. 14I illustrates picture frame 2-TNS 1870 cross section including asupporting insulator 1800 on an underlying substrate (not shown) andconductive element 1805 in via hole 1810. FIG. 14J illustrates a planview of switch 1870 that corresponds to the cross section illustrated inFIG. 14I. Conductive element 1855 can be seen to overlap the peripheryor outer edges of nanotube element 1825, and conductive element 1807 canbe seen to overlap the central region of nanotube element 1825. Theembodiment shown in FIGS. 14I and 14J can be considered a finalstructure.

Picture frame 2-TNS structures have numerous potential applications dueto their density, scalability, and symmetry. In addition to potentialuses for memory (e.g., nonvolatile random access memory) cells, pictureframe nonvolatile two terminal nanotube switches may be used asprogrammable and reprogrammable fuse/antifuse switches between metallayers, and/or for reconfigurable wiring, for example, as described inmore detail below.

Methods that Utilize Thin Film Techniques to Fabricate Dense 2-TNS

FIGS. 15A-15N illustrate the fabrication of a pair ofvertically-oriented 2-TNS. Referring to FIG. 15A, preferred methodsdeposit insulating layer 1200, SiO₂ for example, on an underlyingstructure (not shown). Conductive elements 1205A and 1205B are providedin respective via holes 1210A and 1210B.

Next, preferred methods deposit insulator 1212 as illustrated in FIG.15A which may be SiN, Al₂O₃, or other suitable insulating material, forexample, having a thickness in the range of 2 to 200 nm, for example,deposited using well known industry techniques on the surface ofinsulator 1200. The thickness of insulator 1212 is used to define theseparation between, for example, conductive element 1205A and aconductive element that is deposited in a later process step. Definingseparation between the conductive elements by using a controlleddeposited layer thickness can be more accurate than usingphotolithography.

Next, preferred methods deposit sacrificial layer 1215 illustrated inFIG. 15A, such as silicon for example, using well known industrytechniques, in the thickness range of 1 to 150 nm, for example.Preferred methods of thickness control are used because the thickness ofsacrificial layer 1215 will determine the controlled overlap lengthbetween a nanotube element and conductive element later in the process.The assembly illustrated in FIG. 15A can be considered an initialstructure.

Next, preferred methods pattern sacrificial layer 1215 using well knownindustry techniques, forming sacrificial insulator 1220 illustrated inFIG. 15B.

Next, preferred methods deposit additional insulating material andplanarize to embed sacrificial insulator 1220 in insulator 1225, asillustrated in FIG. 15C. A nonconformal insulating layer may bedeposited and etched back using directional etching such as RIE, withthe sacrificial insulator 1220 surface acting as an etch stop, forexample. The resulting surface need not be highly planar in order tomaintain sacrificial insulator 1220 thickness control.

Next, preferred methods pattern and directionally etch sacrificialinsulator 1220 as shown in FIG. 15D. These methods form sacrificialinsulators 1230 and directionally etch insulator 1225, selectivelystopping at the surface of insulator 1200. These methods exposeconductive elements 1205A and 1205B and leave opening 1245. Directionaletch using RIE selective to underlying insulator 1200 and conductiveelement 1205 may be used, for example.

Next, as shown in FIG. 15E, preferred methods deposit a conformalnanofabric 1235 using methods described in the incorporated patentreferences.

Next, preferred methods deposit conformal protective insulator 1240 onnanofabric 1235 as illustrated in FIG. 15F. Protective insulator 1240may use SiN, Al₂O₃, or other suitable insulating material.

Next, preferred methods deposit insulator 1250 using TEOS, for example,as illustrated in FIG. 15G. TEOS is deposited using well known industrytechniques and fills opening 1245. SiO₂ is another example of aninsulator that can be used for this purpose. Next, preferred methodsplanarize insulator 1250 using well known industry techniques, asillustrated in FIG. 15H. This exposes regions of protective insulator1240.

Next, preferred methods selectively remove the exposed portion ofprotective insulator 1240. Directional etching such as RIE may be used,for example, resulting in the structure illustrated in FIG. 15I.

Next, preferred methods are used to remove exposed regions of nanofabric1235 using ashing, for example, or other appropriate technique asdescribed in the incorporated patent references. The resulting structurewith vertically oriented nanotube element 1255 is illustrated in FIG.15J.

Next, preferred methods remove sacrificial insulator regions 1230 asillustrated in FIG. 15K. This exposes regions 1260 at the ends of thevertically oriented nanotube element 1255. The length of this region isdefined by the thickness of removed sacrificial insulator 1230.

Next, preferred methods deposit conductor 1265 as illustrated in FIG.15L. Conductor 1265 overlaps the exposed regions of nanotube element1255. Conductor 1265 may have a thickness in the range of 5 to 500 nm,and may be composed of metals such as Ti, Cr, Al, Au, Pd, Ni, W, Cu, Mo,Ag, In, Ir, Pb, Sn, for example, as well as other suitable metals, andcombinations of these. Metal alloys such TiAu, TiCu, TiPd, PbIn, TiN,and others, for example, may be used.

Next, preferred methods use well known industry techniques to patternconductor 1265 to form conductive elements 1270A and 1270B asillustrated in FIG. 15M. Elements 1270A and 1270B overlap respectiveends of nanotube element 1255 by respective controlled overlap lengths1280A and 1280B. These lengths may be in the range of 1 to 150 nm, forexample. Controlled spacing 1285 between conductive elements 1270A and1205A is determined by insulator 1212 thickness as described above withrespect to FIG. 15A. The assemblies of FIGS. 15B-15M can be consideredintermediate structures.

Next, as illustrated in FIG. 15N, preferred methods use conductiveelements 1270A and 1270B as masking layers for the directional etch ofinsulator 1250 selective to insulator 1225 and insulator 1240. This etchcreates opening 1290, which stops at the surface of insulator 1240. Thenconductive elements 1270A and 1270B are used again as masking layers forthe etch of insulator 1240 selective to insulator 1250 and insulator1200. Then conductive elements 1270 and 1270B are used again as maskinglayers for the selective etch of exposed regions of nanotube element1255. This etch creates two separate vertically-oriented nanotubeelement segments 1255A and 1255B. Conductive elements 1205A and 1205Boverlap respective nanotube element segments 1255A and 1255B, formingnear-ohmic contacts, and form conductive paths between the segments andcorresponding contacts (not shown) below insulator 1200. This formsmirror image nonvolatile 2-terminal nanotube switches (2-TNS) 1295A and1295B as illustrated in FIG. 15N. The assembly shown in FIG. 15N can beconsidered a final structure.

Vertically-oriented mirror image nonvolatile 2-terminal nanotubeswitches (2-TNS) 1295A and 1295B include conductive elements 1270A and1270 B, which overlap corresponding nanotube element segments 1255 bycorresponding controlled overlap lengths 1280A and 1280B. Though thegeometry of this embodiment differs in many ways from that shown in FIG.1B, lengths 1280A and 1280B correspond to controlled overlap length 40′illustrated in FIG. 1B.

Another method of fabricating dense 2-TNS switches uses preferredfabrication methods with vertically oriented nanotube elements in whicha controlled overlap length between the nanotube element and aconductive element is determined by selectively masking sidewall regionsof a trench (also may be referred to as a concave surface). U.S. Pat.No. 5,096,849 to Bertin, et al., teaches a fabrication method ofselectively masking sidewall regions of a trench, and this method hasbeen adapted here to control controlled overlap lengths. Verticallyoriented nanotube elements can be used to form potentially denser 2-TNS,and can be fabricated in pairs as illustrated further below.

Referring to FIG. 16A, preferred methods deposit and pattern conductor2805 on substrate 2800. Substrate 2800 may include semiconductingdevices, polysilicon gates and interconnections, metallic wiring layersand studs for contacting other layers as illustrated further below.Conductor 2805 may have a well-controlled thickness in the range of 5 to500 nm, and may be composed of metals such as Ru, Ti, Cr, Al, Au, Pd,Ni, W, Cu, Mo, Ag, In, Ir, Pb, Sn, as well as other suitable metals, andcombinations of these. Metal alloys such as TiAu, TiCu, TiPd, PbIn, andTiW, other suitable conductors, including CNTs themselves (singlewalled, multiwalled, and/or double walled, for example), or conductivenitrides, oxides, or silicides such as RuN, RuO, TiN, TaN, CoSi_(x) andTiSi_(x) may be used. Other kinds of conductor, and semiconductor,materials can also be used. Preferred methods of patterning conductor2805 use well known photolithographic techniques and/or well knownetching techniques, such as reactive ion etching (RIE).

Next, preferred methods deposit and planarize insulator 2810 such thatthe surface of insulator 2810 and conductor 2805 are coplanar asillustrated in FIG. 16A. Insulator 2810, supported by substrate 2800,may have a thickness in the range of 5 to 500 nm, for example, and mayuse one or more dielectric layers of SiO₂, SiN, Al₂O₃, or other suitableinsulating material.

Next, preferred methods deposit insulator 2815. Insulator 2815 may havea thickness in the range of 5 to 500 nm, for example, as illustrated inFIG. 16A and may be composed of SiO₂, SiN, Al₂O₃, or other suitableinsulating material. Insulator 2815 thickness controls the separationbetween the top surface of conductor 2805 and the bottom surface of asecond conductor deposited on the top surface of insulator 2815 asillustrated further below.

Next, still referring to FIG. 16A, preferred methods deposit conductorlayer 2820 on insulator 2815. Conductor layer 2820 may have a thicknessT1 in the range of 5 to 500 nm, for example, using a well controlleddeposition thickness, and may be composed of metals such as Ru, Ti, Cr,Al, Au, Pd, Ni, W, Cu, Mo, Ag, In, Ir, Pb, Sn, as well as other suitablemetals, and combinations of these. Metal alloys such as TiAu, TiCu,TiPd, PbIn, and TiW, other suitable conductors, including CNTsthemselves (single walled, multiwalled, and/or double walled, forexample), or conductive nitrides, oxides, or silicides such as RuN, RuO,TiN, TaN, CoSi_(x) and TiSi_(x) may be used. Other kinds of conductor,and semiconductor, materials can also be used. FIG. 28A can beconsidered to be an initial structure.

Next, preferred methods deposit and pattern mask layer 2825 on conductorlayer 2820 as illustrated in FIG. 16B. Mask layer 2825 may be aphotolithographic layer, for example, and may be patterned using methodsknown in the semiconductor industry.

Next, preferred methods remove (etch) exposed portions of conductorlayer 2820 resulting in conductor 2830 as illustrated in FIG. 16C. Knownetch methods such as RIE may be used to define conductor 2830.

Next, preferred methods deposit and planarize insulator 2835, such thatthe top surface of insulator 2835 and the top surface of conductor 2830are coplanar as illustrated in FIG. 16D. Insulator 2835 may be composedof SiO₂, SiN, Al₂O₃, or other suitable insulating material.Alternatively, structures that do not introduce insulator 2835 forplanarization at this step in the process may be used. However,planarization at this step may facilitate subsequent process steps.

Next, preferred methods deposit and pattern mask layer 2840, withopening 2845 as illustrated in FIG. 16E. Opening 2845 corresponds to theposition of vertical trenches to be used in later process steps forfabricating vertical nonvolatile nanotube two-terminal switches formedby depositing nanotube elements directly onto conductive elements.

Next, preferred methods directionally etch conductor 2830, directionallyetch insulator 2815, and directly etch conductor 2805, stopping at thesurface of substrate 2800 to form trench 2860 as illustrated in FIG.16F. Any appropriate directional etch methods of fabrication may be usedto form trench 2860, for example reactive ion etch (RIE) may be used.Methods of forming trench 2860 separate conductor 2830 into twoconductive elements 2850A and 2850B. Methods of forming trench 2860 alsoseparate conductor 2805 into two conductive elements 2855A and 2855B.Methods of forming trench 2860 also form a corresponding trench openingin insulator 2815.

Next, preferred methods remove mask layer 2840, which may bephotoresist, for example, using known semiconducting fabricationtechniques. Next, preferred methods deposit conformal nanofabric 2865 onthe bottom and sidewalls of trench 2860, on the top surface ofconductive elements 2650A and 2650B, and on the top surface of insulator2835 as illustrated in FIG. 16G. Methods of depositing nanofabrics aredescribed in the incorporated patent references.

Next, preferred methods fill trench 2860 with insulator 2870, TEOS forexample, with the surface of insulator 2870 nearly planarized asillustrated in FIG. 16H, such structures may be further planarized asdesired, by CMP, for example.

Next, preferred methods etch an opening 2875 in insulator 2870 in thetrench region as illustrated in FIG. 16I. This exposes the bottom regionof nanofabric 2865. Opening 2875 does not have to be centered in thetrench region, however opening 2875 should not expose sidewall regions(portions) of nanofabric 2865. Preferred methods of etching theinsulator TEOS, or other insulators, are known in the semiconductorindustry.

Next, preferred methods are used to selectively remove the exposedbottom region of at the bottom of opening 2875 using ashing, forexample, or other appropriate technique as described in incorporatedpatent references. This forms vertically oriented nanofabric segments2865A and 2865B as is illustrated in FIG. 16I.

Next preferred methods fill opening 2875 with an insulator, TEOS forexample, and nearly planarize resulting in nearly planarized insulator2880 as illustrated in FIG. 16J, such structures may be furtherplanarized as desired, by CMP, for example.

At this point in the process, there is a need to define a controlledoverlap length between vertically oriented nanofabric segments 2865A and2865B and corresponding conductive elements 2850A and 2850B. A method ofselectively masking sidewall regions in a trench (or concave region)with vertically oriented nanotube fabric may be used. A prior artprocess (fabrication method) for selective removal of material inside atrench in a silicon substrate is described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,096,849,to Bertin et al. Adapting fabrication techniques described in prior artU.S. Pat. No. 5,096,849 to a trench having sidewalls that includeinsulators, nanotube fabric, and conductors, preferred methods offabrication continue as described further below.

Preferred methods directionally etch (using RIE for example) planarizeinsulator 2880 and remove insulator material, to a predetermined depthD1 below the surfaces of conductive elements 2850A and 2850B asillustrated in FIG. 16K. This defines the top surface of the remainingtrench fill insulator 2885. Portions of nanofabric segments 2865A and2865B, are also selectively removed using preferred methods to depth D1,forming nanotube elements 2890A and 2890B. Depth D1 defines the topedges of covered (i.e., protected) nanotube elements 2890A and 2890Bwith respect to the top surface of conductive elements 2850A and 2850B,respectively. In some embodiments, RIE simultaneously removes theinsulator material and portions of nanofabric segments in the same step.However, in the event that the nanofabric portions are not completelyremoved by the RIE process, then preferred methods may be used to removeexposed nanofabric using ashing, for example, or other appropriatetechnique as described in incorporated patent references.

Nanotube elements 2890A and 2890B overlap conductive elements 2850A and2850B by a controlled overlap length defined by the difference T1−D1. T1may be in the range of 5 to 500 nm, for example, and overlap lengthT1−D1 may be in the range of 1 nm to 150 nm, for example. The assembliesillustrated in FIGS. 16B-16K can be considered intermediate structures.

Then, preferred methods remove remaining insulator 2885 as illustratedin FIG. 16L. Alternatively, additional insulator material may be added,and the structure planarized (not shown). The assembly illustrated inFIG. 16L can be considered a final structure. 2-TNS 2895A and 2895B aremirror image pairs. Switch 2895A includes nanotube element 2890A whichoverlaps the full height of the side of conductive element 2855A,forming a near-ohmic contact. Nanotube element 2890A overlaps conductiveelement 2850A by controlled overlap length 2892A that may range inlength from 1 to 150 nm, for example, and is defined by T1−D1. Switch2895B includes nanotube element 2890B which overlaps the full height ofthe side of conductive element 2855B, forming a near-ohmic contact.Nanotube element 2890B overlaps conductive element 2850B by controlledoverlap length 2892B that may range in length from 1 to 150 nm, forexample, and is defined by T1−D1. Though the geometry of this embodimentdiffers in many ways from that shown in FIG. 1B, lengths 2892A and 2892Bcorrespond to controlled overlap length 40′ illustrated in FIG. 1B.

Another method of fabricating dense 2-TNS uses preferred fabricationmethods in which a controlled overlap length between a verticallyoriented nanotube element and a conductive element is determined by athickness of the conductive element. This method may result in improvedoverlap length control and process simplification. This fabricationmethod uses a conductive element that includes first and secondelectrical conductors that are in electrical contact. A first conductorhas a controlled sidewall thickness, and overlaps a vertically orientednanotube element over this thickness. This thickness defines acontrolled overlap length. A second conductor forms a wiring layer thatinterconnects multiple switches. Vertically-oriented nanotube elementscan form potentially denser structures, and can be fabricated in pairsas illustrated further below.

Referring to FIG. 17A, preferred methods deposit and pattern conductor3005 on substrate 3000. Substrate 3000 may include semiconductingdevices, polysilicon gates and interconnections, metallic wiring layersand studs for contacting other layers as illustrated further below.Conductor 3005 may have a thickness in the range of 5 to 500 nm using awell controlled deposition thickness, and may be composed of metals suchas Ru, Ti, Cr, Al, Au, Pd, Ni, W, Cu, Mo, Ag, In, Ir, Pb, Sn, as well asother suitable metals, and combinations of these. Metal alloys such asTiAu, TiCu, TiPd, PbIn, and TiW, other suitable conductors, includingCNTs themselves (single walled, multiwalled, and/or double walled, forexample), or conductive nitrides, oxides, or silicides such as RuN, RuO,TiN, TaN, CoSi_(x) and TiSi_(x) may be used. Other kinds of conductor,and semiconductor, materials can also be used. Preferred methods ofpatterning conductor 3005 using well known photolithographic techniquesand well known etching techniques, such as reactive ion etching (RIE).

Next, preferred methods deposit and planarize insulator 3010 such thatthe surface of insulator 3010 and conductor 3005 are coplanar asillustrated in FIG. 17A. Insulator 3010, supported by substrate 3000,may have a thickness in the range of 5 to 500 nm, for example, and mayuse dielectric layers of SiO₂, SiN, Al₂O₃, or other suitable insulatingmaterial.

Next, preferred methods deposit insulator 3015, as illustrated in FIG.17A. Insulator 3015 may have a thickness in the range of 5 to 500 nm,for example and may be composed of SiO₂, SiN, Al₂O₃, or other suitableinsulating material. The thickness of insulator 3015 controls theseparation between the top surface of conductor 3005 and the bottomsurface of another conductor deposited on the top surface of insulator3015 as illustrated further below.

Next, still referring to FIG. 17A, preferred methods deposit conductorlayer 3018 on insulator 3015. The thickness of conductor layer 3018determines a controlled overlap length between a nanotube element and afirst conductor, as described further below. Conductor layer 3018 mayhave a thickness in the range of 5 to 500 nm, for example, using a wellcontrolled deposition thickness, and may be composed of metals such asTi, Cr, Al, Au, Pd, Ni, W, Cu, Mo, Ag, In, Ir, Pb, Sn, for example, aswell as other suitable metals, and combinations of these. Metal alloyssuch TiAu, TiCu, TiPd, PbIn, and others, for example, may be used.

Next, preferred methods deposit conductor layer 3020 in and electricalcontact with conductor layer 3018 as illustrated in FIG. 17A. Conductorlayer 3020 may be used to interconnect nanotube two-terminal switches asdescribed further below. Conductor layer 3020 may have a thickness inthe range of 5 to 500 nm, for example, using a well controlleddeposition thickness, and may be composed of metals such as Ti, Cr, Al,Au, Pd, Ni, W, Cu, Mo, Ag, In, Ir, Pb, Sn, for example, as well as othersuitable metals, and combinations of these. Metal alloys such TiAu,TiCu, TiPd, PbIn, TiN, and others, for example, may be used.

Next, preferred methods deposit insulator 3022 on the top surface ofconductor layer 3020. Insulator 3022 may have a thickness in the rangeof 5 to 500 nm, for example, as illustrated in FIG. 17A and may becomposed of SiO₂, SiN, Al₂O₃, or other suitable insulating material.FIG. 17A can be considered an initial structure.

Next, preferred methods deposit and pattern mask layer 3025 on insulator3022 as illustrated in FIG. 17B. Mask layer 3025 may be aphotolithographic layer, for example, and is patterned using methodsknown in the semiconductor industry.

Next, preferred methods selectively remove exposed portions of insulator3022 and conductor layers 3020 and 3018. Next, preferred methods removepatterned mask layer 3025, leaving patterned insulator 3022′, conductor3030, and conductor 3032 as shown in FIG. 17C. These methods exposeportions of insulator 3015. Preferred known etch methods such as RIE maybe used to remove portions of the different layers.

Next, preferred methods deposit and planarize insulator 3035, such thatinsulator 3035 insulates (covers) the top surface of conductor 3030 asillustrated in FIG. 30D. The thickness of insulator 3035 above the topsurface of conductor 3030 is not critical, and may vary from 5 nm to 500nm, for example. Insulator 3035 may be composed of SiO₂, SiN, Al₂O₃, orother suitable insulating material.

Next, preferred methods deposit and pattern mask layer 3040, withopening 3045 as illustrated in FIG. 17E. Opening 3045 corresponds to theposition of vertical trenches to be used in fabricating verticalnonvolatile nanotube two-terminal switches formed by vertically orientednanotube elements deposited directly on conductive elements.

Next, preferred methods directionally etch conductor 3030, exposing thetop layer of conductor 3032, and forming conductors 3050A and 3050B asillustrated in FIG. 17F. Preferred known etch methods such as RIE,selective to conductor 3032, may be used. This step separates conductor3030 into two conductors, conductor 3050A and conductor 3050B.

Next, preferred methods deposit and pattern conformal sacrificial layer3047 such as SiO₂, SiN, Al₂O₃, or other insulators, for example, usingwell known industry techniques, as illustrated in FIG. 17F. Layer 3047has a thickness in the range, for example, 1 to 150 nm. Thicknesscontrol of sacrificial layer 3047 is not critical because thesacrificial layer thickness is not used to define the controlled contactoverlap length as described further below.

Next, preferred methods directionally etch conformal sacrificial layer3047 using well known industry methods such as RIE, for example. Thisleaves sidewall spacers 3048A and 3048B on the sidewall regions ofcorresponding conductors 3050A and 3050B. This also exposes a portion ofthe top surface of conductor 3032 as illustrated in FIG. 17G.

Next, preferred methods directionally etch conductor 3032, directionallyetch insulator 3015, and directionally etch conductor 3005, stopping atthe surface of substrate 3000, to form trench 3060 as illustrated inFIG. 17H. Known directional etch methods of fabrication using reactiveion etch (RIE) may be used to form trench 3060, for example. Methods offorming trench 3060 separate conductor 3032 into two electricalconductors, conductor 3052A and conductor 3052B. Methods of formingtrench 3060 also separate conductor 3005 into two conductive elements,3055A and 3055B. Methods of forming trench 3060 also form acorresponding trench opening in insulator 3015.

Next, preferred methods deposit a conformal nanofabric 3065 on thebottom and sidewalls of trench 3060, on the top surface of insulator3035, and the top surface of sidewall spacers 3048A and 3048B asillustrated in FIG. 17I. Nanofabric 3065 may be deposited as describedin the incorporated patent references.

Next, preferred methods fill trenches 3060 with insulator 3070, TEOS forexample, with the surface of insulator 3070 approximately planarized asillustrated in FIG. 17J.

Next, preferred methods etch an opening 3075 in insulator 3070 in thetrench region as illustrated in FIG. 17K, exposing the bottom region ofnanofabric 3065. Opening 3075 does not have to be centered in the trenchregion, however, opening 3075 should not expose sidewall regions(portions) of nanofabric 3065. Preferred methods of etching theinsulator TEOS, or other insulators, are known in the semiconductorindustry.

Next, preferred methods remove (etch) the exposed region of nanofabricat the bottom of opening 3075 using ashing, for example, or otherappropriate technique as described in incorporated patent references.The resulting structure with vertically oriented nanofabric segments3065A and 3065B is illustrated in FIG. 17K.

Next, preferred methods fill opening 3075 with an insulator, TEOS forexample, and nearly planarize resulting in nearly planarized insulator3080 as illustrated in FIG. 17L, such structures may be furtherplanarized as desired, by CMP, for example. The assemblies illustratedin FIGS. 17B-17L can be considered intermediate structures.

Next, preferred methods remove (etch) insulator 3080 and exposehorizontal top portions of nanofabric segments 3065A and 3065B. Then,preferred methods remove these horizontal top portions using ashing, forexample, or other appropriate technique as described in the incorporatedpatent references, to form nanotube elements 3090A and 3090B. Theresulting structure with vertically oriented nanotube elements 3090A and3090B is illustrated in FIG. 17M. The assembly illustrated in FIG. 17Mcan be considered a final structure.

Switches 3095A and 3095B are a mirror image pair as illustrated in FIG.17M. Switch 3095A includes nanotube element 3090A, which overlaps thefull height of conductive element 3055A forming a near-ohmic contact.Nanotube element 3090A overlaps the full height of the sidewall ofconductor 3052A. The height of conductor 3052A defines controlledoverlap length 3092A, which may range in length for example from 1 to150 nm, for example. Switch 3095B includes nanotube element 3090B, whichoverlaps the full height of conductive element 3055B forming anear-ohmic contact. Nanotube element 3090B overlaps the full height ofthe sidewall of conductor 3052B. The height of conductor 3052B definescontrolled overlap length 3092B, which may range in length from 1 to 150nm, for example. Though the geometry of this embodiment differs in manyways from that shown in FIG. 1B, lengths 3092A and 3092B correspond tocontrolled overlap length 40′ illustrated in FIG. 1B.

Example Fabrication Procedure

An initial structure consists of a 4″ Si wafer with a layer of 30 nm ofthermal SiO2. A set of gold alignment marks is patterned on the wafer todefine an array of 60 die measuring 7 mm square. The wafer ispre-treated with an oxygen plasma for 2 min using an O₂ asher. 3 ml ofaqueous nanotube solution containing a majority of MWNTs (greater than50%) and SWNTs, (and bundles thereof), is dispensed onto the oxide layerof a Si wafer. A fabric of nanotubes is applied via a spin coatingprocess which is more fully described in incorporated references. Thewafer is baked on a hotplate at 150 C after the nanotube spin coat, andthe sheet resistance of the resulting nanofabric is measured by 4-pointprobe. This nanotube deposition procedure is repeated until the sheetresistance of the nanofabric is below a specified value of about 1-2kg). The wafer is baked on a hotplate at 150 C between and after thenanotube spin coats.

400 nm of PMMA resist is spun over the nanofabric and baked on ahotplate at 180 C for 5 min. An area of the resist is exposed usingelectron beam lithography (EBL) and developed in a solution of MIBK:IPA.This opens a window of controlled length over the nanofabric that willbecome an overlap region of controlled length between the nanofabric anda conductive element. A bi-layer of e-beam evaporated germanium onalumina (100 nm/10 nm respectively) is deposited and lifted off. Thelift off is done in NMP at 70 C. This hardmask pattern is transferred tothe nanofabric using plasma reactive ion etching (RIE) such that thenanofabric is removed everywhere except for this active region. Thisdefines a nanotube article.

The NT hardmask is stripped (using 10:1 DI:peroxide at room temperaturefor 5 min) to remove the Ge and a solution of TMAH (Microposit 321developer, room temperature for 10 min) to strip the alumina. PMMAresist is deposited again. Patterns for conductive elements are writtenin the resist using EBL and are developed as before. 100 nm of Pd metalis deposited using e-beam evaporation. (2 nm of Ti is used for adhesionbetween the Pd and the oxide.) Liftoff is done in NMP at 70C. Shipley1805 photoresist is spun onto the wafer. A contact aligner is used topattern larger metal contacts comprising pads and traces that connect tothe conductive elements. Photoresist is developed in Microposit 321developer. 200 nm Au is deposited (having 2 nm of Ti for adhesion of theAu to the oxide). Liftoff is done in NMP at 70 C.

10 die were electrically tested, and device yield was measured fordevices with overlap regions of varying length between the nanotubeelement and a conductive element, ranging from no overlap to 500 nmoverlap. Each device contains two conductive elements (or terminals).This testing was done at wafer level using a probe-card and some werediced and packaged by mounting and wire-bonding to a ceramic DIN chippackage. The devices were tested using a DC source-meter and by usingarbitrary function generators/pulse-pattern generators. To read thestate of the device, a 1 volt pulse was applied and the correspondingcurrent flow was measured. High or infinite resistance corresponds tothe “open” state and relatively low resistance corresponds to the“closed” state.

Typically, “open” states exhibited a resistance across the twoconductive elements on the order of a GΩ, while “closed” statesexhibited a resistance on the order of 10 kΩ to several MΩ. The stateswere switched between the two states with voltage pulses. The desiredstate of the device can be set by imposing a current limit during thePROGRAM pulse (which switches the device to low-resistance state), or byimposing no current restriction during the ERASE pulse (which switchesthe device to a high-resistance state.) The current limit (compliance)of the PROGRAM pulse is set to 800 nA while the amplitude of this pulseis set to 5V. The ERASE pulse amplitude is set to 8V. The PROGRAM andERASE pulse widths were set to 6 ms and 1 us respectively. Theresistance of the devices during their “open” and “closed” states wererecorded through hundreds of iterations of switching the device betweenthe “open” and “closed” states. Device errors are defined as “closed”states having a resistance greater than 10 MΩ, and “open” states havinga resistance greater than 10 MΩ. Typical percentage of error for deviceshaving less than 100 nm NT-metal overlap was found to be less than 5%.

Testing as-Fabricated Two Terminal Nanotube Switches

FIG. 18 is a flow chart illustrating steps in an embodiment of aninitial device operability test 100. Test 100 assesses the operation ofas-fabricated 2-TNS devices, such as the embodiments illustrated herein.First the device-under-test (DUT), a 2-TNS, receives READ operation(step 200) in order to measure the state of the as-fabricated DUT. READoperation (step 200) is typically performed by applying a voltage of 1to 3 volts, for example, across two appropriate conductive elements ofthe DUT, see, e.g., conductive elements 15 and 20 in FIG. 1A. Thecurrent flow through the two conductive elements and a nanotube element,see, e.g., nanotube element 25 in FIG. 1A, is measured. In someembodiments, this current is typically in the range between 100 nA and100 uA. From this information, the resistance between the first andsecond conductive elements of the device can be determined. This in turnallows the state of the device to be determined. In general, theimpedance between the first and second conductive elements of the deviceis a function of the state of the device, and can also be determined bymeasuring electrical characteristics of the switch.

In general it is preferable that an as-fabricated DUT is fabricated in astate with a relatively low resistance path, R_(LOW), between the firstand second conductive elements. As discussed above, a relatively lowresistance pathway corresponds to a “closed” or “programmed” devicestate where current flows relatively easily between the first and secondconductive elements through a nanotube element. A relatively highresistance path, R_(HIGH), corresponds to an “open” or “erased” devicestate where current flows relatively poorly between the first and secondconductive elements through the nanotube element. In a preferredembodiment, R_(HIGH) is at least ten times higher than R_(LOW). In apreferred embodiment, R_(HIGH) is greater than 1 MΩ. Both the R_(HIGH)and R_(LOW) states are nonvolatile, that is, the states remain unchangedif power is removed or lost.

If READ operation (step 200) measures a resistance R=R_(HIGH), then theDUT is rejected. If READ operation (step 200) measures a resistanceR=R_(LOW), then the DUT is then subjected to ERASE cycle (step 400),which is described in greater detail below.

In ERASE cycle (step 400), the DUT is preferably switched from a lowresistance state, with R_(LOW), to a high resistance state, withR_(HIGH). If the DUT is not ERASED and remains in the R_(LOW) state, theDUT is rejected. If the DUT is ERASED and transitions to the R_(HIGH)state, then the DUT is accepted and proceeds to PROGRAM cycle (step600), which is described in greater detail below.

In PROGRAM cycle (step 600), the DUT is preferably switched from theR_(HIGH) state to the R_(LOW) state. If the DUT is not PROGRAMMED andremains in the R_(HIGH) state, then the DUT is rejected. If the DUT isPROGRAMMED and transitions to the R_(LOW) state, then the DUT acceptedas an operational switch (step 700). In an alternate embodiment, forexample in the case of a high yield process, the DUT may be assumed tobe an operational switch (step 700) as-fabricated and the other steps inoperational test 100 are skipped.

FIG. 19 is a flow chart illustrating steps of ERASE cycle (step 400).ERASE cycle (step 400) preferably switches the DUT from a relatively lowresistance state to a relatively high resistance state. FIG. 5 showscorresponding ERASE Waveforms 410. ERASE cycle (step 400) begins withREAD operation (step 210). If READ operation (step 210) measures adevice resistance R=R_(HIGH), then the device is already in a relativelyhigh resistance state. In this case, ERASE cycle (Step 400) terminates.If READ operation (step 210) measures a device resistance R=R_(LOW),then ERASE waveforms (step 410) are applied to the DUT. These waveformspreferably switch the DUT from the low resistance state to the highresistance state.

A maximum voltage, of approximately 8 volts in one embodiment, asillustrated in FIG. 20, is applied between the conductive elements ofthe DUT. See, e.g., conductive elements 15 and 20 in FIG. 1A. Thisvoltage causes a corresponding current flow, with a maximum current, inone embodiment, of approximately 15 uA, which indicates a successfulERASE operation. The result of the ERASE cycle (step 400) is independentof ERASE voltage polarity and/or ERASE current direction. The voltagepolarity and direction of current flow in FIG. 20 may be reversed withno change to ERASE cycle (step 400).

In some embodiments, maximum ERASE voltages are in the range of 8 to 10volts. ERASE current may vary over a relatively wide range, andgenerally depend on the density of nanotubes in the nanotube elementand/or the controlled overlap length. For DUTs with 5 to 10 nanotubes(or electrical networks of nanotubes) spanning the distance between theconductive elements, the current may be in the range of 1 to 30 uA, orit may be significantly higher, for example. It may be difficult to knowwhat the operational erase current will be at the onset of the erasepulse because the device reacts to this voltage at very short timescales, making knowledge of the instantaneous erase current difficult toobtain. The voltages, currents, and success of the ERASE cycle (step400) do not vary significantly as a function of the contact metallurgy,for example, Al, W, Ti, Pd.

However, the voltages, currents, and time required for the ERASE cycle(step 400), do vary with the controlled overlap length between thenanotube element and a conductive element. See, e.g., length 40′ in FIG.1B. For waveforms 410 shown in FIG. 20, ERASE time is approximately 300ns for an exemplary overlap size between 50-100 nm. In general, shortercontrolled overlap lengths typically result in shorter ERASE times. Forexample, controlled overlap lengths greater than about 100 nm, forexample, may result in ERASE times in the millisecond range, whilelengths less than about 50 nm or less may result in ERASE times in thenanosecond range. A correlation exists such that longer overlapstypically require greater erase voltage amplitudes.

Waveforms 410 in FIG. 20 illustrate a DUT that is ERASED using a singleERASE pulse. However, in many nonvolatile applications, multiple ERASEpulses may be used to successfully ERASE the DUT. Counter (step 420) inFIG. 19 is used to count the number of ERASE cycles applied to a DUT. Ifthe number of cycles reaches a maximum defined number of cycles,N_(MAX), then the DUT is rejected. The maximum allowed value of N_(MAX)depends on the application requirements, process details, and particularembodiment, however, N_(MAX) is not expected to exceed 10 to 12 cycles.

FIG. 21 is a flow chart illustrating steps of PROGRAM cycle (step 600).PROGRAM cycle (step 600) preferably switches the DUT from a relativelyhigh resistance state to a relatively low resistance state. FIG. 22Ashows corresponding PROGRAM Waveforms 710. PROGRAM cycle (step 600)begins with READ operation (step 230). If READ operation (step 230)measures a device resistance R=R_(LOW), then the device is already in alow resistance state. In this case, PROGRAM cycle (step 600) terminates.If READ operation (step 230) measures a device resistance R=R_(HIGH),then PROGRAM waveforms (step 610) are applied to the DUT. Thesewaveforms preferably switch the DUT from the high resistance state tothe low resistance state.

A maximum voltage, of approximately 5 volts in one embodiment, asillustrated in FIG. 22A, is applied between the conductive elements ofthe DUT. See, e.g., conductive elements 15 and 20 of FIG. 1A. Thisvoltage causes a corresponding current flow during PROGRAMMING, with amaximum current, in one embodiment, of approximately 30 uA. Thisindicates a successful PROGRAM operation. The result of PROGRAM cycle(step 600) is independent of PROGRAM voltage polarity and/or PROGRAMcurrent direction. The voltage polarity and direction of current flow inFIG. 22A may be reversed with no change to PROGRAM cycle 600.

In some embodiments, PROGRAM voltages are preferably in the range of 3to 5 volts. For DUTs with 5 to 20 nanotubes (or electrical networks ofnanotubes) spanning the distance between the conductive elements, thecurrent may be in the range of 1 to 60 uA, for example. It may bedifficult to know what the operational erase current will be at theonset of the erase pulse because the device reacts to this voltage atvery short time scales, making knowledge of the instantaneous erasecurrent difficult to obtain. The voltages, currents, and success of thePROGRAM cycle (step 600) do not vary significantly as a function of thecontact metallurgy, for example, Al, W, Ti, Pd.

The timing of the PROGRAM cycle (step 600) does not vary significantlywith the controlled overlap length between the nanotube element and aconductive element. See, e.g., length 40′ in FIG. 1B.

Success of the PROGRAM cycle can be confirmed with a READ operation(step 240). A current flow of approximately 7.5 uA, in one embodiment,corresponds to the relatively low resistance state. Current in the offstate during a read operation may be in the pA range.

Waveforms 710 in FIG. 22A illustrate a DUT that is PROGRAMMED using asingle PROGRAM pulse. However, in many nonvolatile applications,multiple PROGRAM pulses may be used to successfully PROGRAM the DUT.Counter (step 620) in FIG. 21 is used to count the number of PROGRAMcycles applied to a DUT. If the number of cycles reaches a maximumdefined number of cycles, M_(MAX), then the DUT is rejected. The maximumallowed value of M_(MAX) depends on the application requirements,process details, and particular embodiment, however, M_(MAX) is notexpected to exceed 10 to 12 cycles.

The maximum number of cycles between high resistance “open” states andlow resistance “closed” states that a DUT can tolerate before failing isan important parameter. The waveforms 710 of FIG. 22A illustratevoltages and currents for a DUT that is subjected to the followingsteps: READ, PROGRAM, READ, ERASE. FIG. 22B shows resistance values 650for DUT repeatedly cycled with these steps for approximately 50 millionoperations before failing. FIG. 22B shows R_(LOW) values in the range ofapproximately 10 kΩ to 40 kΩ, and R_(HIGH) values exceeding 10 GΩ. Thescatter in the values reflects the resolution of the measurementequipment. The ratio between the values of R_(HIGH) and R_(LOW) ratioexceeds five orders of magnitude, making the corresponding states easyto detect electronically.

In general, 2-TNS having two easily detectable states can be used asnon-volatile random access memory (NRAM) devices. The two states can beused as informational states of a device.

Structures for NRAM Memory Arrays Using Cells Having One Transistor andOne Two-Terminal Nanotube Switch, and Methods of Making Same

Two-terminal nanotube switches can be used to produce nonvolatile randomaccess memory (NRAM) arrays that have many desirable features overmemory arrays in the prior art, as discussed in more detail in U.S.patent application Ser. No. (TBA), entitled “Memory Arrays UsingNanotube Articles With Reprogrammable Resistance,” filed on an even dateherewith and having a common assignee as the present invention. Forexample, memory devices containing arrays of 2-TNS can achieve a memorydensity at least as dense as memory cells in current generationtechnology, offer a non-destructive read out (NDRO) operation,nonvolatile data retention when power is lost or removed, and fastrandom access times.

As described in more detail in U.S. patent application Ser. No. (TBA),entitled “Non-Volatile Shadow Latch Using A Nanotube Switch,” filed onan even date herewith and having a common assignee as the presentinvention, minimization of NRAM cell area is desirable because NRAMarrays composed of multiple cells use less silicon area, have higherperformance, and dissipate less power. Memory performance is increasedand power dissipation is decreased because shorter array lines have lesscapacitive loading. Also, less NRAM array area results in smaller chipsize for the NRAM function, resulting in more chips per wafer andcorresponding lower memory costs. Cell area may be calculated in termsof minimum feature size F as is well known in the industry. In general,for some embodiments of NRAM cells using two-terminal nanotube switcheswith one select transistor, the cell densities may be similar to thosefor DRAM cells such as stacked capacitor DRAM cells. Here a cell areasize of about 8F² may be expected, where F is the minimum feature sizefor a given technology. For other embodiments which include two-terminalnanotube switched that are integrated above a select transistor, thedensity depends in part on the number of two-terminal switches that canbe stacked. Here a cell area size of about 4 to 6 F² may be expected,and cell densities similar to those of Flash cells may be accomplished,which are more dense than DRAM cells.

For fabricating preferred embodiments of the invention, preferredmethods include one or more of the methods described above forfabricating 2-TNS. While the described methods use 2-TNS that utilize acontrolled overlap between a nanotube element and a conductive elementin order to thermally engineer the switches, any method can be used tothermally engineer the switches.

In general, though it is not illustrated, it should be understood thatelements in the described embodiments are in electrical communicationwith a memory operation circuit which is similar to the stimulus circuitdescribed above. In the described NRAM arrays, the memory operationcircuit is in electrical communication with a bit line, a word line, anda program/erase/read line, which allows the circuit to select one ormore cells in the array and to change and/or determine the state of thecells in a similar manner as described above for the stimulus circuit.

One method of producing an NRAM array is illustrated in FIGS. 23A-23E.FIG. 23A illustrates initial structure 1300 with planarized top surface1355. Cell select transistor 1335 includes source 1315, drain 1310, andchannel region 1330 formed in silicon substrate 1305. Gate 1320,fabricated with sidewall spacers 1325 and part of an array word lineillustrated further below in an array plan view, controls channel region13300N and OFF states using well known MOSFET device operating methods.Stud 1340 embedded in dielectric 1350 provides a conductive path fromsource 1315 to planarized surface 1355 of initial structure 1300. Stud1345 embedded in dielectric 1350 provides a conductive path from drain1310 to planarized surface 1355 of initial structure 1300.

Next, preferred methods described further above form intermediatestructures 1070A and 1070B, which are 2-TNS devices in electricalcommunication with underlying transistors, as illustrated in FIG. 23B.Structure 1070A corresponds to nonvolatile two terminal switch 1070shown in FIG. 8F. Structure 1070B is a mirror image of structure 1070Awith corresponding wiring and interconnections. Conductive element 1005of 2-TNS 1070A, for example, overlaps and is in near-ohmic contact withnanotube element 1025 and stud 1340. This forms a conductive pathbetween nanotube element 1025 and source 1315 of transistor 1335,enabling ERASE, PROGRAM, and/or READ operations in 2-TNS 1070A. 2-TNS1070B is connected in a similar way to the source of a transistor belowthe surface 1355 of structure 1300.

Next, preferred methods deposit and planarize insulator 1360 asillustrated in FIG. 23C. Insulator 1360 may be TEOS, for example, oranother insulator deposited and planarized using well knownsemiconductor fabrication methods.

Next, preferred methods etch a via hole in insulator 1360 and insulator1000 using well known semiconductor fabrication methods, exposing thetop surface of stud 1345 as illustrated in cross section 1395 of FIG.23D.

Then, preferred methods deposit and pattern a conducting layer formingconducting stud 1370 and bit line 1375 as shown in cross section 1395FIG. 23D and bit line 1375′ as shown in corresponding plan view 1395′ inFIG. 23E. A conducting path is formed between bit line 1375 (1375′) anddrain 1310 through studs 1370 and 1345. If transistor 1335 is in the OFFstate, then channel region 1330 is not formed, and bit line 1375 (1375′)is electrically isolated from nanotube element 1025. If, however,transistor 1335 is in the ON state, then a conductive channel is formed,which connects drain 1310 and source 1315. This forms a conductive pathbetween bit line 1375 (1375′) and nanotube element 1025 through studs1370 and 1345, drain 1310, channel 1330, source 1315, stud 1340, andconductive element 1005.

FIGS. 23D and 23E illustrate different views of transistor 1335, whichis used to select (or not select) cell 1390A using gate 1320, which isalso part of word line 1320′. Other cells such as cell 1390B may beselected instead by activating other word lines, such as 1325′.Conductive element 1055′ overlaps nanotube element 1025 in cell 1390A bya controlled overlap length 1050, preferably 1-150 nm, and at the sametime overlaps other nanotube elements in other storage cells byapproximately the same controlled overlap length 1050. Thus conductiveelement 1055′ interconnects a plurality of cells, and the element isused during ERASE, PROGRAM, and/or READ operations explained in detailabove. Nonvolatile storage cells 1390A and 1390B containing one selecttransistor and one nonvolatile two terminal switch layouts are mirrorimages of each other. Additional preferred methods of completingfabrication and passivation of the NRAM function (not shown) use wellknown semiconductor fabrication techniques.

Memory cells 1390A and 1390B (FIG. 23E), corresponding to nonvolatiletwo terminal switch 1070 shown in FIG. 8F, are illustrated in memoryarray cross section 1395 and corresponding memory plan view 1395′ andresult in a cell area of 10F².

A second method of fabrication is described and illustrated in FIG. 24that may reduce the cell area of cells 1390A and 1390B by approximately30% by using vertically oriented SWNT fabric switches 1295A and 1295Billustrated in FIG. 15N to enable closer source-to-source spacingbetween adjacent cells as described further below.

FIG. 24A illustrates initial structure 1400 with planarized topstructure 1455. Structure 1400 reduces the separation between source1415 diffusions relative to the separation of source 1315 diffusionsillustrated in FIG. 23A. Closer separation of source diffusions requiresa different approach to nonvolatile two terminal intermediate structurefabrication as illustrated further below. Cell select transistor 1435includes source 1415, drain 1410, and channel region 1430 formed insilicon substrate 1405. Gate 1420, fabricated with sidewall spacers 1425and part of an array word line illustrated further below in an arrayplan view, controls channel region 14300N and OFF states using wellknown MOSFET device operating methods. Stud 1440 embedded in dielectric1450 provides a conductive path from source 1415 to planarized surface1455 of partially fabricated semiconductor structure 1400. Stud 1445embedded in dielectric 1450 provides a conductive path from drain 1410to planarized surface 1455 of initial structure 1400.

Next, preferred methods described further above form intermediatestructures 1295A and 1295B of two terminal nanotube storage devicesinterconnected with respective underlying transistors as illustrated inFIG. 24B. The vertical orientation of intermediate structures 1295A and1295B are used to position adjacent nonvolatile two terminal devices onthe more closely spaced source diffusions 1415. Structure 1295A is thesame as nonvolatile two terminal switch structure 1295A shown in FIG.15N. Structure 1295B is the same as nonvolatile two terminal switchstructure 1295B shown in FIG. 15N. Structure 1295B is the mirror imageof structure 1295A with corresponding wiring and interconnections.Conductive element 1205A of 2-TNS 1295A, for example, overlaps and is innear-ohmic contact with nanotube element 1255A and stud 1440. This formsa conductive path between nanotube element 1255A and source 1415 oftransistor 1435, enabling ERASE, PROGRAM, and/or READ operations in2-TNS 1070A. 2-TNS 1270B is connected in a similar way to the source ofa transistor below the surface 1455 of structure 1400.

Next, preferred methods deposit and planarize insulator 1460 asillustrated in FIG. 24C. Insulator 1460 may be TEOS, for example, oranother insulator deposited and planarized using well knownsemiconductor fabrication methods.

Next, preferred methods etch a via hole in insulator 1460 and insulator1200 using well known semiconductor fabrication methods, exposing thetop surface of stud 1445 as illustrated in cross section view 1495 ofFIG. 24D.

Then, preferred methods deposit and pattern a conducting layer formingconducting stud 1470 and bit line cross section 1475 as shown in FIG.24D and bit line plan view 1475′ as shown in corresponding plan view1495′ in FIG. 24E. A conducting path is formed between bit line 1475(1475′) and drain 1410 through studs 1470 and 1445. If transistor 1435is in the OFF state, then channel region 1430 is not formed, and bitline 1475 (1475′) is electrically isolated from nanotube element 1255A.If, however, transistor 1435 is in the ON state, then a conductivechannel is formed in region 1430, which connects drain 1410 and source1415. This forms a conductive path between bit line 1475 (1475′) andnanotube element 1255A through studs 1470 and 1445, drain 1410, channel1430, source 1415, stud 1440, and conductive element 1205A.

FIGS. 24D and 24E illustrate different view of transistor 1435, which isused to select (or not select) cell 1490A using gate 1420, which is alsopart of word line 1420′. Conductive element 1270A (1270A′) overlapsnanotube element 1255A by controlled overlap length 1275A, preferably1-150 nm, and at the same time overlaps other nanotube elements in otherstorage cells by approximately the same controlled overlap length. Thusconductive element 1270A interconnects a plurality of cells, and theelement is used during ERASE, PROGRAM, and/or READ operations explainedin detail above. Nonvolatile storage cells 1490A and 1490B containingone select transistor and one nonvolatile two terminal switch layoutsare mirror images of each other. Additional preferred methods ofcompleting fabrication and passivation of the NRAM function (not shown)use well known semiconductor fabrication techniques.

Memory cells 1490A and 1490B (FIG. 24E) have the same cell area ofapproximately 7F², which is about 30% smaller than cells 1390A and 1390B(FIG. 23E) having a cell area of approximately 10F².

Another method of fabrication is described and illustrated in FIGS.25A-E that may reduce the cell area of cells 1390A and 1390B illustratedin FIG. 13E by approximately 30%. This can be done by interchangingcells 1070A and 1070B of FIG. 23D such that conductive elements areadjacent to studs connecting bit line and drain. This enables closersource-to-source spacing between adjacent cells as described furtherbelow. An additional insulating step is required at an upper portion ofthe studs contacting bit lines to prevent shorting between bit line andconductive elements due to via hole misregistration as described furtherbelow.

FIG. 25A illustrates initial structure 1500 with planarized topstructure 1555. Cell select transistor 1535 includes source 1515, drain1510, and channel region 1530 formed in silicon substrate 1505. Gate1520, fabricated with sidewall spacers 1525 and part of an array wordline illustrated further below in an array plan view, controls channelregion 15300N and OFF states using well known MOSFET device operatingmethods. Stud 1540 embedded in dielectric 1550 provides a conductivepath from source 1515 to planarized surface 1555 of initial structure1500. Stud 1545 embedded in dielectric 1550 provides a conductive pathfrom drain 1510 to planarized surface 1555 of initial structure 1500.

Next, preferred methods described further above form 2-TNS 1070A and1070B which are interconnected with respective underlying transistors asillustrated in FIG. 25B. Structure 1070A corresponds to nonvolatile twoterminal switch 1070 shown in FIG. 8F. Structure 1070B is a mirror imageof structure 1070A with corresponding wiring and interconnections. Ascompared with FIG. 23B, the positions of 2-TNS 1070A and 1070B areinterchanged with respect to respective underlying transistors, e.g.transistor 1535. Conductive element 1005 of 2-TNS overlaps and is innear-ohmic contact with nanotube element 1025 and stud 1540. This formsa conductive path between nanotube element 1025 and source 1515 oftransistor 1535, enabling ERASE, PROGRAM, and/or READ operations in2-TNS 1070A.

Next, preferred methods deposit and planarize insulator 1560 asillustrated in FIG. 25C. Insulator 1560 may be TEOS, for example, oranother insulator deposited and planarized using well knownsemiconductor fabrication methods.

Next, preferred methods etch a via hole in insulator 1560 and insulator1000 using well known semiconductor fabrication methods, exposing thetop surface of stud 1545 as illustrated in cross section 1595 of FIG.25D.

Next, preferred methods deposit a conformal insulating film and coat viaopening sidewalls with insulator 1580. If via holes are not properlyregistered and expose conductive element 1055, insulator 1580 willinsulate exposed portions of conductive element 1055 and preventelectrical shorting to stud 1570. Insulator 1580 may be SiO₂, forexample.

Then, preferred methods deposit and pattern a conducting layer formingconducting stud 1570 and bit line cross section 1575 as shown in FIG.25D and bit line plan view 1575′ as shown in corresponding plan view1595′ in FIG. 25E. A conducting path is formed between bit line 1575(1575′) and drain 1510 through studs 1570 and 1545. If transistor 1535is in the OFF state, then channel region 1530 is not formed, and bitline 1575 (1575′) is electrically isolated from nanotube element 1025.If, however, transistor 1535 is in the ON state, then a conductivechannel is formed connecting drain 1510 and source 1515. This forms aconductive path between bit line 1575 (1575′) and nanotube element 1025through studs 1570 and 1545, drain 1510, channel 1530, source 1515, stud1540, and conductive element 1005.

FIGS. 25D and 25E illustrate different views of transistor 1535, whichis used to select (or not select) cell 1590A using gate 1520, which isalso part of word line 1520′. Other cells such as cell 1590B may beselected instead by activating other word lines such as 1525′.Conductive element 1055 (1055′) forms and interconnects switch region1050 in multiple nonvolatile storage cells such as 1590A and 1590B (FIG.25E) and is used during ERASE, PROGRAM, and/or READ operations explainedin detail above. Nonvolatile storage cells 1590A and 1590B containingone select transistor and one nonvolatile two terminal switch layoutsare mirror images of each other. Additional preferred methods ofcompleting fabrication and passivation of the NRAM function (not shown)use well known semiconductor fabrication techniques.

Cells 1590A and 1590B (FIG. 25E) have the same cell area ofapproximately 7F², approximately the same area as cells 1490A and 1490B(FIG. 24E), and 30% smaller than cells 1390A and 1390B (FIG. 23E) havinga cell area of approximately 10F².

Another method of fabricating an NRAM array with 2-TNS is described andillustrated in FIG. 26. Nonvolatile two-terminal nanotube switch 2370Acorresponds to nonvolatile two-terminal nanotube switch 2370 shown inFIG. 13. As illustrated in memory array structure 2400 illustrated incross section in FIG. 26, nonvolatile memory cell structure 2490Aincludes nonvolatile 2-TNS 2370A interconnected with transistor 2435,and interconnected with one bit line, one first word line, and onesecond word line as described further below. Nonvolatile memory cellstructure 2490B is a mirror image of 2490A, and 2-TNS 2370B is a mirrorimage of 2-TNS 2370A

Preferred methods fabricate NRAM array cell structure 2400 illustratedin FIG. 26. First, preferred methods fabricate initial structure 2402having planarized surface 2404.

Next, preferred methods fabricate an intermediate structure includingmirror-image 2-TNS 2370A and 2370B on surface 2404 of initial structure2402 using preferred methods described further above with respect toFIGS. 12A-13.

Then, preferred methods complete fabrication of the nonvolatile memorychip on the intermediate structure to complete NRAM memory arraystructure 2400 shown in FIG. 26.

In operation, a conducting path is formed between bit line 2475 anddrain 2410 through studs 2445 and 2470 in dielectric 2460. If transistor2435 is in the OFF state, then channel region 2430 is not formed, andbit line 2475 is electrically isolated from nanotube element 2325. If,however, transistor 2435 is in the ON state, then a conductive channelis formed, which connects drain 2410 and source 2415. This forms aconductive path between bit line 2475 and nanotube element 2325 throughstuds 2470 and 2445, drain 2410, channel 2430, source 2415, stud 2440,and conductive element 2305A.

Transistor 2435 is used to select (or not select) cell 2490A using gate2420, which is also part of a common word line shared with other cellsin the corresponding row. Other cells, such as cell 2490B may beselected instead by activating other word lines. In NRAM memory arraystructure 2400, conductive element 2310A overlaps nanotube element 2325in region 2350 of a controlled overlap length, and at the same timeoverlaps other nanotube elements in other cells by the same controlledoverlap length. Thus conductive element 2310A interconnects acorresponding row of cells similar to 2490A, forming a common electricalconnection used during ERASE, PROGRAM, and/or READ operations asdescribed above. Nonvolatile storage cells 2490A and 2490B contain oneselect transistor and one nonvolatile two-terminal switch and havecorresponding layouts that are mirror images of each other. Additionalpreferred methods of completing fabrication and passivation of the NRAMfunction (not shown) use well known semiconductor fabricationtechniques.

Another method of fabricating an NRAM array with 2-TNS is described andillustrated in FIG. 27. As illustrated in memory array structure 2700illustrated in cross section in FIG. 27, nonvolatile memory cellstructure 2790A includes 2-TNS 2670A interconnected with transistor2735, and interconnected with one bit line, one first word line, and onesecond word line as described further below.

Nonvolatile two terminal nanotube switch 2670A corresponds tononvolatile two terminal nanotube switch 2670 shown in FIG. 11C.Nonvolatile memory cell structure 2790B is a mirror image of 2790A, and2-TNS 2670B is a mirror image of 2-TNS 2670A.

Preferred methods fabricate NRAM array cell structure 2700 illustratedin FIG. 27. First, preferred methods fabricate initial structure 2702having planarized surface 2704.

Next, preferred methods fabricate an intermediate structure including2-TNS 2670A and 2-TNS 2670B on surface 2704 of initial structure 2702using preferred methods described further above with respect to FIGS.11A-11C.

Then, preferred methods complete fabrication of the nonvolatile memorychip on the intermediate structure to complete NRAM memory arraystructure 2700 shown in FIG. 27.

In operation, a conducting path is formed between bit line 2775 anddrain 2710 through studs 2745 and 2770 in dielectric 2760. If transistor2735 is in the OFF state, then channel region 2730 is not formed, andbit line 2775 is electrically isolated from nanotube element 2625. If,however, transistor 2735 is in the ON state, then a conductive channelis formed, which connects drain 2710 and source 2715. This forms aconductive path between bit line 2775 and nanotube element 2625 throughstuds 2770 and 2745, drain 2710, channel 2730, source 2715, stud 2740,and conductive element 2605A.

Transistor 2735 is used to select (or not select) cell 2790A using gate2720, which is also part of a common word line shared with other cellsin the corresponding row. Other cells, such as cell 2790B, may beselected instead by activating other word lines. In NRAM memory arraystructure 2700, conductive element 2610A overlaps nanotube element 2625in region 2640 of controlled overlap length, for examples 1-150 nm, andat the same time overlaps other nanotube elements in other cells byapproximately the same controlled overlap length. Thus conductiveelement 2610A interconnects in parallel with other cells similar to cell2790A in a corresponding row, forming a common electrical connectionused during ERASE, PROGRAM, and/or READ operations as described indetail above. Nonvolatile storage cells 2790A and 2790B each contain oneselect transistor and one nonvolatile two-terminal switch and havecorresponding layouts that are mirror images of each other. Additionalpreferred methods of completing fabrication and passivation of the NRAMfunction (not shown) use well known semiconductor fabricationtechniques.

Another method of fabricating an NRAM array with 2-TNS is described andillustrated in FIG. 28. Nonvolatile two terminal nanotube switch 2895Aillustrated in FIG. 28 corresponds to vertically-oriented nonvolatiletwo terminal nanotube switch 2895A shown in FIG. 16L. 2-TNS 2895A isinterconnected with transistor 2935 as illustrated in memory arraystructure 2900 illustrated in cross section in FIG. 28. Verticallyoriented switches are designed to minimize NRAM cell size (area).

It is desirable to simplify methods of fabrication while reducing cellarea, and corresponding NRAM array area, because NRAM arrays composed ofmultiple cells use less silicon area, have higher performance, anddissipate less power. Vertically oriented switches are designed tominimize NRAM cell size (area).

Nonvolatile memory cell structure 2990A includes 2-TNS 2895Ainterconnected with transistor 2935, and interconnected with one bitline, one first word line, and one second word line as described furtherbelow. Nonvolatile memory cell structure 2990B is a mirror image of2990A, and 2-TNS 2895B is a mirror image of 2895A. Insulator 2925corresponds to insulator 2815 in FIG. 16L.

Preferred methods fabricate NRAM array cell structure 2900 illustratedin FIG. 28.

First, preferred methods fabricate initial structure 2902 havingplanarized surface 2904.

Next, preferred methods fabricate an intermediate structure including2-TNS 2895A and 2-TNS 2895B on surface 2904 of initial structure 2902using preferred methods described further above with respect to FIGS.16A-16L.

Then, preferred methods complete fabrication of the nonvolatile memorychip on the intermediate structure to complete NRAM memory arraystructure 2900 shown in FIG. 28.

In operation, a conducting path is formed between bit line 2975 anddrain 2910 through studs 2945 and 2970 in dielectric 2960. If transistor2935 is in the OFF state, then channel region 2930 is not formed, andbit line 2975 is electrically isolated from nanotube element 2890A. If,however, transistor 2935 is in the ON state, then a conductive channelis formed, connecting drain 2910 and source 2915. This forms aconductive path between bit line 2975 and nanotube element 2890A throughstuds 2970 and 2945, drain 2910, channel 2930, source 2915, stud 2940,and conductive element 2855A.

Transistor 2935 is used to select (or not select) cell 2895A using gate2920, which is also part of a common word line shared with other cellsin the corresponding row. Other cells, such as cell 2895B may beselected instead by activating other word lines. In NRAM memory arraystructure 2900, conductive element 2850A overlaps nanotube element 2890Aby controlled overlap length 2892A, for example 1-150 nm, and at thesame time overlaps other nanotube elements in other cells byapproximately the same controlled overlap length. Thus conductiveelement 2850A interconnects a corresponding row of cells similar to2895A, forming a common electrical connection used during ERASE,PROGRAM, and/or READ operations as described above.

Nonvolatile storage cells 2895A and 2895B containing one selecttransistor and one nonvolatile two-terminal switch corresponding layoutsare mirror images of each other. Additional preferred methods ofcompleting fabrication and passivation of the NRAM function (not shown)use well known semiconductor fabrication techniques.

Another method of fabricating an NRAM array with 2-TNS is described andillustrated in FIG. 29. Nonvolatile two terminal nanotube switch 3095Aillustrated in FIG. 29 corresponds to vertically oriented nonvolatiletwo terminal nanotube switch 3095A shown in FIG. 17M. 2-TNS 3095A isinterconnected with transistor 3135 as illustrated in memory arraystructure 3100 illustrated in cross section in FIG. 29. Verticallyoriented switches are designed to minimize NRAM cell size (area).

Nonvolatile memory cell structure 3190A includes 2-TNS 3095Ainterconnected with transistor 3135, and interconnected with one bitline, one first word line, and one second word line as described furtherbelow. Nonvolatile memory cell structure 3190B is a mirror image of3190A, and nonvolatile two terminal nanotube switch array cell structure3095B is a mirror image of 3095A.

Preferred methods fabricate NRAM array cell structure 3100 illustratedin FIG. 31.

First, preferred methods fabricate initial structure 3102 havingplanarized surface 3104.

Next, preferred methods fabricate an intermediate structure including2-TNS 3095A and 2-TNS 3095B on surface 3104 of initial structure 3102using preferred methods described further above with respect to FIGS.17A-17M.

Then, preferred methods complete fabrication of the nonvolatile memorychip on the intermediate structure to complete NRAM memory arraystructure 3100 shown in FIG. 29.

In operation, a conducting path is formed between bit line 3175 anddrain 3110 through studs 3145 and 3170 in dielectric 3160. If transistor3135 is in the OFF state, then channel region 3130 is not formed, andbit line 3175 is electrically isolated from nanotube element 3090A. If,however, transistor 3135 is in the ON state, then a conductive channelis formed, connecting drain 3110 and source 3115. This forms aconductive path between bit line 3175 and nanotube element 3090A throughstuds 3170 and 3145, drain 3110, channel 3130, source 3115, stud 3140,and conductive element 3055A.

Transistor 3135 is used to select (or not select) cell 3190A using gate3120, which is also part of a common word line shared with other cellsin the corresponding row. Other cells, such as cell 3190B may beselected instead by activating other word lines. In NRAM memory arraystructure 3100, conductive element 3050A overlaps nanotube element 3090Aby controlled overlap length 3092A, for example 1-150 nm, and at thesame time overlaps other nanotube elements in other cells byapproximately the same controlled overlap length. Thus conductiveelement 3050A interconnects a corresponding row of cells similar to3190A, forming a common electrical connection used during ERASE,PROGRAM, and/or READ operations as described above.

Nonvolatile storage cells 3095A and 3095B containing one selecttransistor and one nonvolatile two-terminal switch and correspondinglayouts are mirror images of each other. Additional preferred methods ofcompleting fabrication and passivation of the NRAM function (not shown)use well known semiconductor fabrication techniques.

Using the methods and embodiments described herein, one skilled in theart could fabricate an nonvolatile random access memory array utilizingany embodiment of a two-terminal nanotube switch. Some NRAM arrays couldeven be fabricated including more than one different embodiment oftwo-terminal nanoswitches.

For example, picture frame nonvolatile two terminal switch 1870illustrated in FIGS. 14I and 14J may be substituted for the 2-TNS 1070Aand 1070B in the NRAM cells illustrated in FIGS. 23D and 23E, and inFIGS. 25D and 25E. Other NRAM cells (not shown) may be designed to takefurther advantage of dense picture frame nonvolatile two terminalnanotube switch 1870.

Nonvolatile Two Terminal Nanotube Switches as High Density Cross PointSwitches

Data processing, communications, and consumer solutions are dictatingsemiconductor design, test, burn-in, and packaging technology choices.Examples of products covered include: smart card/games, mobile/handheldsuch as cell phones, personal computers, desktop/workstations, andserver/mainframe. These requirements are driven by miniaturization,performance, power, reliability, quality, and time to market. For someapplications, such as aerospace, components are exposed to harshenvironments such as high radiation levels. In some applications,security features such as a near-impossibility of reverse engineering isa requirement as well.

Time to market, including rapid hardware prototyping and productionramp-up, has resulted in increasing usage of pre-wired reconfigurablelogic, field programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) for example. For manyapplications, pre-wired reconfigurable logic, such as FPGAs, are choseninstead of ASIC chips because the complexity of ASIC logic chips hasincreased, with 15 to 20 (or more) conductor levels, resulting inincreased costs and longer time to market. The density of the pre-wiredreconfigurable logic chips are less than those of ASIC chips so thatmore are required. Some ASIC designs are beginning to include embeddedpre-wired reconfigurable logic regions as well.

The size and electrical characteristics of the pre-wired switchessentially determine the reconfigurable logic architecture andpotential applications. The smallest pre-wired switch presently used isa prior art nonvolatile one-time-programmable (OTP) two terminalantifuse switch between logic wires as illustrated in FIGS. 30A and 30B.The nonvolatile OTP antifuse is the smallest in size (area) because itis a crosspoint switch placed between pre-wired logic conductors thatcan be programmed to selectively interconnect various logic conductorsas illustrated in FIGS. 30A and 30B. The use of prior art nonvolatileOTP two terminal antifuses to design pre-wired reconfigurable logicfunctions is described in the following reference: John McCollum,“Programmable Elements and Their Impact on FPGA Architecture,Performance, and Radiation Hardness”, Altera Corporation, 1995. Thereferenced power point presentation file “80_McCollum_(—)5_PROGRAMMABLELOGIC_ALTERA.ppt” may be found at http://klabs.org. The prior artdiscloses forming an antifuse using a dielectric layer between two metallayers.

FIG. 30A illustrates prior art antifuse 1900 in the ON (CLOSED) orprogrammed conducting state 1920. FIG. 30A illustrates prior artantifuse 1900 in the OFF (OPEN) non-conducting state 1910 prior toprogramming. When antifuse 1900 is in conducting state 1920, conductors1930 and 1940 are electrically connected by a resistance of less than100 ohms. In the non-conducting state, conductors 1930 and 1940 are notelectrically connected, and the capacitance added by the antifuse issmall, less than 1 fF per node, for example.

Advantages of prior art antifuse 1900 include density achieved by usinga cross point switch configuration, low capacitance, relatively lowresistance, and nonvolatility. Also, it is difficult to “reverseengineer” a chip to trace the logic function, which is very important insecurity applications. The switch is tolerant of harsh environments suchas high temperatures and high levels of radiation (radiation hardswitch).

Disadvantages of prior art antifuse 1900 include high voltageprogramming (10 to 12 volts) at high currents (typically 10 mA perantifuse). Also, because antifuses can only be programmed once (OTP),defective antifuses cannot be completely eliminated from the pre-wiredreconfigurable logic parts. Because of these, and other limitations,programming is relatively complex and is usually carried out in a socket(test fixture) prior to use in a system.

What is needed is a way of retaining the density and other advantages ofprior art antifuse 1900, while eliminating or reducing the disadvantages(limitations), especially the elimination of defective switches frompre-wired reconfigurable logic parts and eliminating the need to programswitches in a socket prior to use in a system.

Nonvolatile two terminal nanotube switches, such as 2-TNS 1870 shown inFIGS. 14I and 14J and other switches described further above, caneliminate or significantly reduce the limitations of prior art switches1900 shown in FIGS. 30A and 30B. 2-TNS 1870, for example, may be used toreplace prior art antifuse switch 1900. 2-TNS 1870 is easily integratedbetween metal layers, is a small cross point switch, and, perhaps mostimportantly, may be erased and programmed repeatedly as describedfurther above. As a result, pre-wired reconfigurable logic parts may beshipped with integrated and fully tested 2-TNS ready for programming.

In some embodiments, nonvolatile two terminal nanotube switches haveERASE voltages of 8 to 10 volts, PROGRAM voltages of 4 to 6 volts, andrelatively low PROGRAM and ERASE currents, typically less than 100 uAper switch. Because the switches are readily testable, and require about100 times lower current to PROGRAM compared to prior art antifuse 1900,pre-wired reconfigurable logic chips based on 2-TNS may be programmed ina system environment. The harsh environment tolerance of nanotubes andhigh security (“reverse engineering” is nearly impossible) means thatlogic can be used in critical aerospace applications, and programmed inspace, for example.

FIG. 31 illustrates a cross section of nonvolatile nanotube cross pointswitch 2000 resulting from the integration of 2-TNS 1870 shown in FIGS.14I and 14J with conductor layers 2060 and 2055. Conductor 2055corresponds to conductive element 1855 shown in FIG. 14I, overlappingnanotube element 1825 in regions 1850 by a controlled overlap length of,for example, 1-150 nm, as described further above. Insulator 2002corresponds to insulator 1800 shown in FIG. 14I. Conductor 2060 is inelectrical contact with nanotube element 1825 of 2-TNS 1870 through stud1805.

Conductors 2055 and 2060 are in relatively good electrical contact whennonvolatile nanotube cross point switch 2000 is in a relatively lowresistance “closed” or ON state. Conductors 2055 and 2060 are inrelatively poor electrical contact when nonvolatile nanotube cross pointswitch 2000 is in the relatively high resistance “open” or ON state.

FIGS. 32A and 32B shows a schematic representation 2100 of nonvolatilenanotube cross point switch 2000 illustrated in FIG. 31. FIGS. 32A and32B illustrate the replacement of prior art antifuse cross point switch1900 shown in FIGS. 30A and 30B with nonvolatile nanotube cross pointswitch 2100. Conductors 2130 and 2140 in FIGS. 32A and 32B correspond toconductors 1930 and 1940, respectively, in FIGS. 30A and 30B. FIG. 32Ashows nanotube cross point switch 2100 in the as-fabricated/PROGRAMMED“closed” state 2110 as described further above. A “closed” state may becharacterized by having a relatively low resistance between conductors2130 and 2140, for example less than 100 Ohms or less than 1,000 Ohms insome embodiments. FIG. 32B illustrates nanotube cross point switch 2100in the ERASED “open” state 2120 as described further above. Nanotubecross point switch 2100, state 2120, corresponds to state 1910 of priorart antifuse 1900. Nanotube cross point switch 2100, state 2110,corresponds to state 1920 of prior art antifuse 1900. Nanotube crosspoint switch 2100 may be PROGRAMMED to change from state 2120 to state2110, and then ERASED to return to state 2120. Millions of such cycleshave been observed as described further above. The operation of eachswitch may be verified prior to shipping products containing pre-wiredreconfigurable logic.

Because of the relatively low programming current of nonvolatilenanotube cross point switches 2100, on-chip ERASE and PROGRAM functionsare possible in a system environment. The high voltage requirementsdescribed further above may be generated on chip as described in Bertinet al., U.S. Pat. No. 6,346,846. High voltages may be decoded on chipsas described in Bertin et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,818,748.

The sections describing FIGS. 14, 31, and 32 above describe two terminalnanotube switches as high density electrically reprogrammable crosspoint switches that provide reprogrammable contacts between a firstconductive element on the top surface of an insulator and one end of astud (vertical filled via). The opposite end of the stud contacts asecond conductor in contact with the bottom surface of the sameinsulator. The above sections describe applications of electricallyreprogrammable cross point switches.

Two Terminal Nanotube Switches as High Density ElectricallyReprogrammable Nanotube Via Interconnections Between Two or More WiringLayers

Further embodiments for electrically reprogrammable via interconnectingswitches are described below. In these embodiments, a nanotube elementreplaces stud via interconnections, which would typically use aconductive material such as tungsten, aluminum, copper, and/or otherconductors. The nanotube element provides electrically reprogrammableconnections between layers using nonvolatile nanotube two-terminalswitches described further above. These embodiments enable electricallyreprogrammable wiring interconnection after chip fabrication andpackaging.

Nanotube element-based electrically reprogrammable via interconnectionsare tolerant of harsh environments such as high temperature operation(in excess of 200 degrees centigrade, for example), and tolerant of highradiation levels. High temperature tolerance and radiation toleranceresult from certain characteristics of nanotube elements.

Nanotube element-based electrically reprogrammable interconnectionsprovide a high level of security. In the event of a security concern,switch connections may be electrically reprogrammed (opened, forexample, a switch ON state erased) in nanoseconds, or at most,microseconds. Even with reverse engineering of the hardware, theinterconnect network cannot be determined.

In general, though it is not illustrated, it should be understood thatelements in the described embodiments are in electrical communicationwith a stimulus circuit which is similar to the stimulus circuitdescribed above. In the described reprogrammable interconnections, thestimulus circuit is in electrical communication with a conductiveterminal and one or more wiring layer conductive terminals, which allowsthe circuit to reprogrammably form and break interconnections betweenone or more wiring layers in a similar manner as described above for thestimulation circuit that changes switches between two states.

One method of fabricating two-terminal nanotube switches as high densityreprogrammable nanotube via interconnections between two wiring layersis illustrated in FIGS. 33A-33G.

First, preferred methods deposit conductor 3205 of controlled thicknessas illustrated in FIG. 33A. Conductor 3205 may have a thickness in therange of 5 to 500 nm and may be formed using metals such as Ru, Ti, Cr,Al, Au, Pd, Ni, W, Cu, Mo, Ag, In, Ir, Pb, Sn, as well as other suitablemetals, and combinations of these. Metal alloys such as TiAu, TiCu,TiPd, PbIn, and TiW, other suitable conductors, including CNTsthemselves (single walled, multiwalled, and/or double walled, forexample), or conductive nitrides, oxides, or silicides such as RuN, RuO,TiN, TaN, CoSi_(x) and TiSi_(x) may be used. Other kinds of conductor,and semiconductor, materials can also be used.

Next, preferred methods deposit and pattern conductor 3210 definingconductor length, width (not shown) and openings 3215 to accommodatevertical vias as illustrated in FIG. 33A using known industrytechniques. Opening 3215 in conductor 3210 is formed using known RIEetch selective to conductor 3205, with opening 3215 shown in crosssection in FIG. 33A. Conductor 3210 is of sufficient width that hole3215 leaves a sufficient border region around opening 3215 (not shown)that conductor 3210 remains a continuous conductor. Conductor 3205 widthand length is patterned using the same masking step as used to defineconductor 3210 dimensions such that conductors 3205 and 3210 form acomposite conductor, with the top surface of conductor 3205 and thebottom surface of conductor 3210 in electrical and mechanical contact,except in opening 3215. Conductor 3210 may have a thickness in the rangeof 5 to 500 nm and may be formed using metals such as Ru, Ti, Cr, Al,Au, Pd, Ni, W, Cu, Mo, Ag, In, Ir, Pb, Sn, as well as other suitablemetals, and combinations of these. Metal alloys such as TiAu, TiCu,TiPd, PbIn, and TiW, other suitable conductors, including CNTsthemselves (single walled, multiwalled, and/or double walled, forexample), or conductive nitrides, oxides, or silicides such as RuN, RuO,TiN, TaN, CoSi_(x) and TiSi_(x) may be used. Other kinds of conductor,and semiconductor, materials can also be used.

Next, preferred methods deposit and planarize insulator 3220 using knownindustry methods. Insulator 3220 fills opening 3215 and provides aplanar top surface 3222 as illustrated in FIG. 33A. Insulator 3220 maybe SiO₂, SiN, Al₂O₃, BeO, polyimide, or other suitable insulatingmaterial of thickness in the range of 2 to 500 nm, for example. Theassembly illustrated in FIG. 33A can be considered an initial structure.

Next, preferred methods deposit and pattern conductor 3225 on surface3222 of insulator 3220 using known industry techniques, and planarizethe surface to form insulator 3224 as illustrated in FIG. 33B. Conductor3225 may have a thickness in the range of 5 to 500 nm and may be formedusing metals such as Ru, Ti, Cr, Al, Au, Pd, Ni, W, Cu, Mo, Ag, In, Ir,Pb, Sn, as well as other suitable metals, and combinations of these.Metal alloys such as TiAu, TiCu, TiPd, PbIn, and TiW, other suitableconductors, including CNTs themselves (single walled, multiwalled,and/or double walled, for example), or conductive nitrides, oxides, orsilicides such as RuN, RuO, TiN, TaN, CoSi_(x) and TiSi_(x) may be used.Other kinds of conductor, and semiconductor, materials can also be used.

Next, preferred methods deposit, expose, and form a mask layer 3230 withopening 3235 as illustrated in FIG. 33B to define the location ofelectrically reprogrammable vias described further below.

Next, preferred methods directionally etch conductor 3225, directionallyetch insulator 3220, and directionally etch conductor 3205, stopping atthe surface of insulator 3200 to form via holes 3240 as illustrated inFIG. 33C. Known directional etch methods of fabrication using reactiveion etch (RIE) may be used to form trench 3240, for example.

Next, preferred methods deposit a conformal layer of nanofabric 3245 onthe bottom and sidewalls of trench 3240, on the top surface ofconductive elements 3225A and 3225B, and on the top surface of insulator3224 as illustrated in FIG. 33D. Nanofabric 3245 deposition may be donewith techniques as described in the incorporated patent references.

Next, preferred methods fill trench 3240 with insulator 3250, TEOS forexample, with the surface of insulator 3250 planarized as illustrated inFIG. 33E using known industry techniques.

Next, preferred methods pattern and etch insulator 3250 using knownindustry methods as illustrated in FIG. 33F, exposing a portion ofnanofabric 3245. Etching using RIE may remove the exposed portion ofnanofabric 3245. Nanofabric 3245 may be only partially removed, or notremoved at all by the etch step of insulator 3250.

If nanofabric 3245 is not entirely removed then preferred methods may beused to remove exposed regions of nanofabric using ashing, for example,or other appropriate technique as described in incorporated patentreferences. This results in nanotube element 3267 as illustrated in FIG.33F.

Then, preferred methods deposit and planarize insulator 3260 completingthe nonvolatile nanotube element-based electronically reprogrammable viainterconnect structure 3280 as illustrated in FIG. 33G.

Structure 3280 includes conductive element 3225A, which overlaps andforms a near-ohmic contact with nanotube element 3267 at sidewall andtop surface of conductor 3225A. Structure 3280 also includes conductiveelement 3225B, which overlaps and forms a near-ohmic contact withnanotube element 3267 at sidewall and top surface of conductor 3225B.Sidewalls 3275 of nanotube element 3267 form vias between conductiveelement 3225A and conductive element 3205A, and between conductiveelement 3225B and conductive element 3205B. Conductors 3210A and 3210B,in electrical and mechanical contact with corresponding conductiveelements 3205A and 3205B, may be used for interconnections.

Nanotube element 3267 overlaps the sidewall of conductor 3205A by acontrolled overlap length that is determined by conductive element 3205Athickness. Nanotube element 3267 also overlaps the sidewall of conductor3205B by a controlled overlap length that is determined by conductiveelement 3205B thickness. Thus conductive element 3225A, nanotube element3267, and conductive element 3205A form a first 2-TNS 3270A, andconductive element 3225B, nanotube element 3267, and conductive element3205B form a second 2-TNS 3270B.

In operation, a good (e.g., relatively low resistance) electricalconnection between conductive elements 3225A and 3205A is formed if2-TNS 3270A is in a “closed” state. The resistance between elements3225A and 3205A, in some embodiments, may be in the range of 10 to1,000Ω for a “closed” state, for example. There is a relatively poor(e.g., relatively high resistance) electrical connection betweenconductive elements 3225A and 3205A if 2-TNS 3270 is in an “open” state.The resistance between elements 3225A and 3205A, in some embodiments,may be in the range of greater than 1 MΩ, or greater than 1 GΩ for a“closed” state, for example. Switch 3270B has corresponding states andcharacteristics. The general operation and characteristics ofnonvolatile two-terminal nanotube switches are explained herein.

Two Terminal Nanotube Switches as High Density ElectricallyReprogrammable Nanotube Via Interconnections Between Greater than TwoWiring Layers

In some applications it is desirable to have nonvolatile electricallyreprogrammable nanotube via interconnections between more than twowiring layers. In the example described further below, nonvolatileelectrically reprogrammable interconnections between four wiring layersare illustrated. Four layers are used for illustrative purposes only;many more levels are possible.

FIG. 34A illustrates is a similar structure to that illustrated in FIG.33C, but extended to include four layer via interconnections. Preferredmethods used to fabricate the initial structure shown FIG. 33A may alsobe used to fabricate multiple wiring layers with conductive elements3305A-C and 3310A-C one above the other as illustrated in FIG. 34A.

Next, preferred methods deposit and pattern conductive elements 3325Aand 3325B using methods similar to those methods used in definingconductor 3225 as shown in FIG. 33B.

Next, preferred methods etch trench 3330 as illustrated in FIG. 34Ausing preferred methods of trench formation described further above withrespect to formation of trench 3240 illustrated in FIG. 33C.

Next, preferred methods deposit nanofabric 3340 as illustrated in FIG.34B using preferred methods described above and in the incorporatedpatent references.

Next, preferred methods fill via hole 3330 with insulator 3350 andplanarize the surface of insulator 3350 using preferred methodsdescribed further above with respect to insulator 3250 illustrated inFIG. 33E.

Next, preferred methods pattern insulator 3350 and remove exposedregions of nanofabric to form nanotube element 3367 as illustrated inFIG. 34D, using preferred methods described further above with respectto fabricating nanotube element 3267 illustrated in FIG. 33F.

Next, preferred methods deposit and planarize insulator 3360 asillustrated in FIG. 34E using preferred methods described further abovewith respect to insulator 3260 illustrated in FIG. 33G, resulting inmultilevel nonvolatile nanotube element-based electricallyreprogrammable via interconnection structure 3380.

Structure 3380 includes conductive element 3325, which overlaps andforms a near-ohmic contact with nanotube element 3367 at sidewall andtop surface of conductive element 3325. Sidewalls 3375 of nanotubeelement 3367 form vias between conductive element 3325 and conductors3305A, 3305B, and 3305C

Nanotube element 3367 overlaps the sidewalls of conductive element3305A, 3305B, and 3305C, by a controlled overlap length that isdetermined by the thicknesses of elements 3305A, 3305B, and 3305C. Thusconductive element 3325, nanotube element 3367, and conductive element3305A form a first 2-TNS 3370A; conductive element 3325, nanotubeelement 3367, and conductive element 3305B form a second 2-TNS 3370B;and conductive element 3325, nanotube element 3367, and conductiveelement 3305C form a third 2-TNS 3370C.

In operation, a relatively good (e.g., relatively low resistance)electrical connection between conductive element 3325 and any or all ofthe conductive elements 3305A, 3305B, 3305C is formed if corresponding2-TNS 3370A, 3370B, and/or 3370C is in a “closed” state. The resistancebetween elements 3325 and 3305A, in some embodiments, may be in therange of 10 to 1,000Ω for a “closed” state, for example. There is arelatively poor (e.g., relatively high resistance) electrical connectionbetween conductive element 3325 and any or all of the conductiveelements 3305A, 3305B, 3305C if corresponding 2-TNS 3370A, 3370B, and/or3370C is in an “open” state. The resistance between elements 3325 and3305A, for example, in some embodiments, may be in the range of greaterthan 1 MΩ, or greater than 1 GΩ for a “closed” state. The other switchesin structure 3380 have corresponding states and characteristics. Thegeneral operation and characteristics of nonvolatile two-terminalnanotube switches are explained herein.

All combinations of single or multiple connections may be activatedbetween conductors 3325 and any other of conductors 3305 A, B, and C.Also, connections between any combination or multiple combinations ofconductors 3305 A, B, and C are allowed.

By way of example, referring to nonvolatile nanotube element-basedelectrically reprogrammable via interconnection 3380 structureillustrated in FIG. 34E, if switch A is “closed”, switch B is “open”,and switch C is “closed”, then since conductive element 3325A isconnected with near-ohmic contact to nanotube sidewalls 3375, conductiveelement 3325 is also connected to elements 3305C and 3310C, and 3305Aand 3310A. This also connects conductive elements 3305C and 3305A toeach other because switch C is in the “closed” state, and switch A is inthe “closed” state.

Two Terminal Nanotube Switches as High Density ElectricallyReprogrammable Nanotube Via Interconnections Between Two or More WiringLayers with Still Greater Densities

The cross sections illustrated in FIGS. 33 and 34 and described furtherabove, assume that a via hole is surrounded by conducting layers aroundthe entire perimeter of the via hole opening. Because of alignmentconsiderations, and requirements for sufficient conductor border regionssurrounding via holes, landing pads are provided on each level. Suchlanding pads require an increased spacing between conductors on eachlevel and reduce wiring density. Via connections may also be placedadjacent to metal lines without requiring landing pads, therebyincreasing conductor wiring density by reducing the spacing betweenconductors.

FIG. 35 illustrates a plan view 3400 of conductors 3430 on a top leveland one or more lower conductor wiring levels 3450. Top conductor wires3430 on insulator 3410 include landing pads 3440 at locations where viaholes are placed. The spacing between conductors on all wiring levels isincreased in order to meet minimum spacing requirements 3420. One ormore wiring layers 3450 are interconnected, and also connected withconductor 3430 by via holes 3445. Via holes 3445 contain nanotubeelements. Top view 3400 correspond to cross sections illustrated inFIGS. 33 and 34 described further above, with via hole 3445corresponding to nonvolatile nanotube element-based electricallyreprogrammable via interconnections 3280 illustrated in FIGS. 33G and3380 illustrated in FIG. 34E.

FIG. 36 illustrates a plan view 3500 of conductors 3530 on a top leveland one or more lower conductor wiring levels 3550. Landing pads havebeen eliminated so that spacing between conductors has been reduced andwiring density has been increased. Via holes 3545 are located at acorner defined by the intersection of a top level and lower levelconductor. Nonvolatile nanotube element-based electricallyreprogrammable via interconnections similar to 3280 in FIGS. 32G and3380 in FIG. 34E may be fabricated using methods described further abovewith respect to FIGS. 33 and 34, except that the spacing betweennanotube elements and conductors will be smaller in cross sectional areabecause only a portion of the via hole perimeter will contact eachconductor level. Conductors 3530 are patterned on the top surface ofinsulator 3510. Conductors 3650 are on the top surface of a lowerinsulator (not shown) and are in contact with the bottom surface ofinsulator 3510.

Alternate Embodiments

In some embodiments, single walled carbon nanotubes may be preferred,and in other embodiments, multi-walled (e.g., double walled) carbonnanotubes may be preferred. Also nanotubes may be used in conjunctionwith nanowires. Nanowires as mentioned herein is meant to mean singlenanowires, aggregates of non-woven nanowires, nanoclusters, nanowiresentangled with nanotubes comprising a nanofabric, mattes of nanowires,etc.

As described above, the interconnect wiring used to interconnect thenanotube device terminals may be conventional wiring such as AlCu, W, orCu wiring with appropriate insulating layers such as SiO2, polyimide,etc. The interconnect may also be single- or multi-wall nanotubes usedfor wiring.

The invention may be embodied in other specific forms without departingfrom the spirit or essential characteristics thereof. The presentembodiments are therefore to be considered in respects as illustrativeand not restrictive.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is related to the following references, which areassigned to the assignee of this application and are hereby incorporatedby reference herein in their entireties:

Electromechanical Memory Array Using Nanotube Ribbons and Method forMaking Same (U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/915,093, now U.S. Pat.No. 6,919,592), filed on Jul. 25, 2001;

Electromechanical Memory Having Cell Selection Circuitry ConstructedWith NT Technology (U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/915,173, nowU.S. Pat. No. 6,643,165), filed on Jul. 25, 2001;

Hybrid Circuit Having NT Electromechanical Memory (U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 09/915,095, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,574,130), filed onJul. 25, 2001;

Electromechanical Three-Trace Junction Devices (U.S. patent applicationSer. No. 10/033,323, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,911,682), filed on Dec. 28,2001;

Methods of Making Electromechanical Three-Trace Junction Devices (U.S.patent application Ser. No. 10/033,032, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,784,028),filed on Dec. 28, 2001;

Nanotube Films and Articles (U.S. patent application Ser. No.10/128,118, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,706,402), filed on Apr. 23, 2002;

Methods of Nanotube Films and Articles (U.S. patent application Ser. No.10/128,117, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,835,591), filed Apr. 23, 2002;

Methods of Making Carbon Nanotube Films, Layers, Fabrics, Ribbons,Elements and Articles (U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/341,005),filed on Jan. 13, 2003;

Methods of Using Thin Metal Layers to Make Carbon Nanotube Films,Layers, Fabrics, Ribbons, Elements and Articles (U.S. patent applicationSer. No. 10/341,055), filed Jan. 13, 2003;

Methods of Using Pre-formed Nanotubes to Make Carbon Nanotube Films,Layers, Fabrics, Ribbons, Elements and Articles (U.S. patent applicationSer. No. 10/341,054), filed Jan. 13, 2003;

Carbon Nanotube Films, Layers, Fabrics, Ribbons, Elements and Articles(U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/341,130), filed Jan. 13, 2003;

Non-volatile Electromechanical Field Effect Devices and Circuits usingSame and Methods of Forming Same (U.S. patent application Ser. No.10/864,186), filed Jun. 9, 2004;

Devices Having Horizontally-Disposed Nanofabric Articles and Methods ofMaking the Same, (U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/776,059, U.S.Patent Publication No. 2004/0181630), filed Feb. 11, 2004;

Devices Having Vertically-Disposed Nanofabric Articles and Methods ofMaking the Same (U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/776,572, U.S.Patent Publication No. 2004/0175856), filed Feb. 11, 2004; and

Patterned Nanoscopic Articles and Methods of Making the Same (U.S.patent application Ser. No. 10/936,119, U.S. Patent Publication No.2005/0128788).

The invention may be embodied in other specific forms without departingfrom the spirit or essential characteristics thereof. The presentembodiments are therefore to be considered in respects as illustrativeand not restrictive.

1. A two terminal memory device, comprising: a first conductiveterminal; a second conductive terminal in spaced relation to the firstconductive terminal; a nanotube article having a plurality of nanotubes,said nanotube article being arranged such that the nanotube article isin electrical communication with both the first and second conductiveterminals; and stimulus circuitry in electrical communication with atleast one of the first and second conductive terminals, said stimuluscircuitry configured to create a first voltage difference between thefirst conductive terminal and the second conductive terminal, to inducea change in the resistance of the nanotube article between the first andsecond conductive terminals from a relatively low resistance to arelatively high resistance, said stimulus circuitry configured to createa second voltage difference between the first conductive terminal andthe second conductive terminal, to induce a change in the resistance ofthe nanotube article between the first and second conductive terminalsfrom a relatively high resistance to a relatively low resistance,wherein the relatively high resistance of the nanotube article betweenthe first and second conductive terminals corresponds to a first stateof the two terminal memory device, and wherein the relatively lowresistance of the nanotube article between the first and secondconductive terminals corresponds to a second state of the two terminalmemory device, wherein the first and second states of the two terminalmemory device are nonvolatile.
 2. The two terminal memory device ofclaim 1 wherein one or more thermal characteristics of the two terminalmemory device are selected to substantially reduce a flow of heat out ofthe nanotube article.
 3. The two terminal memory device of claim 1,wherein the nanotube article permanently overlaps at least a portion ofthe first conductive terminal with a controlled geometricalrelationship.
 4. The two terminal memory device of claim 3, wherein thecontrolled geometrical relationship-is selected to allow electricalcurrent to flow relatively well between the first conductive terminal tothe nanotube article, and to allow heat to flow relatively poorlybetween the first conductive terminal and the nanotube article.
 5. Thetwo terminal memory device of claim 3, wherein the controlledgeometrical relationship is a predetermined extent of overlap within therange of 1 to 150 nm.
 6. The two terminal memory device of claim 3,wherein the controlled geometrical relationship is a predeterminedextent of overlap within the range of 15 to 50 nm.
 7. The two terminalmemory device of claim 3, wherein the controlled geometricalrelationship is a predetermined extent of overlap defined by a dimensionof the first conductive terminal.
 8. The two terminal memory device ofclaim 1, wherein the first conductive terminal comprises a material thatconducts electricity relatively well and conducts heat relativelypoorly.
 9. The two terminal memory device of claim 1, further comprisinga passivation layer disposed on the nanotube article.
 10. The twoterminal memory device of claim 9, wherein the passivation layercomprises a material that conducts heat relatively poorly.
 11. The twoterminal memory device of claim 10, wherein the material is selected tosubstantially trap heat in the nanotube article.
 12. The two terminalmemory device of claim 1, wherein the resistance of the first state isat least about ten times larger than the resistance of the second state.13. The two terminal memory device of claim 1, wherein an impedance ofthe first state is at least about ten times larger than an impedance ofthe second state.
 14. The two terminal memory device of claim 1, whereinthe first state is characterized by a resistance above about 1 megaohm.15. The two terminal memory device of claim 1, wherein the second stateis characterized by a resistance below about 100 kilaohm.
 16. The twoterminal memory device of claim 1, wherein the first voltage differencecomprises electrical stimulus selected to provide an erase operation.17. The two terminal memory device of claim 16, wherein the eraseoperation comprises the stimulus circuitry applying a relatively highvoltage across the first and second terminals.
 18. The two terminalmemory device of claim 17, wherein the relatively high voltage is withinthe range of 3 V to 10 V.
 19. The two terminal memory device of claim16, wherein the erase operation comprises the stimulus circuitryapplying one or more voltage pulses across the first and secondterminals, wherein an amplitude of the pulses, a waveform of the pulses,and a number of the pulses together are sufficient to change the twoterminal memory device to the first state.
 20. The two terminal memorydevice of claim 1, wherein the second voltage difference compriseselectrical stimulus selected to provide a program operation.
 21. The twoterminal memory device of claim 20, wherein the program operationcomprises the stimulus circuitry applying a relatively low voltage and arelatively low current across the first and second conductive terminals.22. The two terminal memory device of claim 21, wherein the relativelylow voltage is within the range of 1 V to 5 V and the relatively lowcurrent is within the range of 100 nA to 100 uA.
 23. The two terminalmemory device of claim 20, wherein the program operation comprises thestimulus circuitry applying one or more voltage pulses across the firstand second conductive terminals, wherein an amplitude of the pulses, awaveform of the pulses, and a number of the pulses together aresufficient to change the two terminal memory device to the second state.24. The two terminal memory device of claim 1, wherein the stimuluscircuit includes a circuitry configured to create a third voltagedifference between the first and second conductive terminals,exclusively, the third waveform having at least one waveformcharacteristic selected to determine the state of the two terminalmemory device.
 25. The two terminal memory device of claim 24, whereinthe third waveform comprises electrical stimulus selected to provide anon-destructive read-out operation wherein the stimulus circuit appliesa voltage across the first and second conductive terminals and sensesthe resistance between the first and second terminals, the voltage beingsufficiently low that it does not change the state of the device. 26.The two terminal memory device of claim 25, wherein the voltage issmaller than about 2 V.
 27. The two terminal memory device of claim 1,wherein at least one of the first and second conductive terminalspermanently overlaps an edge of the nanotube article.
 28. The twoterminal memory device of claim 1, wherein opposing ends of the nanotubearticle respectively permanently overlap at least a portion of each ofthe first and second conductive terminals.
 29. The two terminal memorydevice of claim 1, wherein one of the first and second conductiveterminals is a picture frame structure that permanently overlaps aperiphery of the nanotube article, and does not overlap a central regionof the nanotube article.
 30. The two terminal memory device of claim 29,wherein the other of the first and second conductive terminalspermanently overlaps the central region of the nanotube article.
 31. Thetwo terminal memory device of claim 1, wherein the first conductiveterminal has a plurality of surfaces, wherein the nanotube articlesubstantially conforms to and permanently overlaps at least a portion ofmore than one of the plurality of surfaces.
 32. The two terminal memorydevice of claim 1, wherein at least one of the first and secondconductive terminals has a vertically oriented feature, and wherein thenanotube article substantially conforms to at least a portion of thevertically oriented feature.
 33. The two terminal memory device of claim1, wherein the nanotube article comprises a patterned region of nanotubefabric having a defined orientation and defined dimensions.
 34. The twoterminal memory device of claim 1, wherein the nanotube articlecomprises double walled nanotubes.
 35. The two terminal memory device ofclaim 1, wherein the nanotube article comprises single walled nanotubes.36. The two terminal memory device of claim 1, wherein the nanotubearticle comprises multiwalled nanotubes.
 37. The two terminal memorydevice of claim 1, wherein the nanotube article comprises bundles ofnanotubes.
 38. The two terminal memory device of claim 1, wherein one ormore nanotubes in the nanotube article are selected to have aparticularly strong radial breathing mode.
 39. The two terminal memorydevice of claim 38, wherein the particularly strong radial breathingmode behaves as a thermal bottleneck.
 40. The two terminal memory deviceof claim 38, wherein the particularly strong radial breathing modecouples to a mode that causes a connection between a nanotube and aconductor in the two terminal memory device to break, wherein aconductor in the two terminal memory device comprises one or more of thefirst conductive terminal, the second conductive terminal, a nanotube,and a nanotube segment.
 41. The two terminal memory device of claim 1,wherein the first and conductive second terminals are metal.
 42. The twoterminal memory device of claim 41, wherein the metal comprises at leastone of Ru, Ti, Cr, Al, Au, Pd, Ni, W, Cu, Mo, Ag, In, Ir, Pb, Sn, TiN,TiAu, TiCu, TiPd, PbIn, and TiW.
 43. A selectable memory cell,comprising: a cell selection transistor including a gate, a source, anda drain, with the gate in electrical contact with a word line, and adrain in electrical contact with a bit line; a two-terminal memorydevice comprising a first conductive terminal, a second conductiveterminal, and a nanotube article having a plurality of nanotubes, thenanotube article in electrical communication with both the first andsecond conductive terminals, wherein the first conductive terminal is inelectrical contact with the source of the memory cell selectiontransistor and the second conductive terminal is in electrical contactwith a program/erase/read line; and a memory operation circuit inelectrical communication with the word line, bit line, andprogram/erase/read line, said memory operation circuit includingcircuitry configured to generate and apply a select signal on the wordline to select the memory cell and for generating and for applying anerase signal on the program/erase/read line, the erase signal creating avoltage difference between the first conductive terminal and the secondconductive terminal and selected to induce a change in the resistance ofthe nanotube article between the first and second conductive terminalsfrom a relatively low resistance to a relatively high resistance, saidmemory operation circuit including circuitry configured to generate andapply a select signal on the word line to select the memory cell and forgenerating and for applying a program signal on the program/erase/readline, the program signal creating a voltage difference between the firstconductive terminal and the second conductive terminal and selected toinduce a change in the resistance of the nanotube article between thefirst and second conductive terminals from a relatively high resistanceto a relatively low resistance, wherein the relatively high resistanceof the nanotube article between the first and second conductiveterminals corresponds to a first informational state of the memory cell,and wherein the relatively high resistance of the nanotube articlebetween the first and second conductive terminals corresponds to asecond informational state of the memory cell, wherein the first andsecond informational states are nonvolatile.
 44. The selectable memorycell of claim 43, wherein said memory operation circuit includescircuitry for generating and for applying a select signal on the wordline to select the cell and for generating and for applying a readsignal on the program/erase/read line, wherein the read signal has atleast one waveform characteristic selected to determine theinformational state of the memory cell.
 45. The selectable memory cellof claim 44, wherein determining the informational state of the memorycell does not change the informational state of the memory cell.
 46. Theselectable memory cell of claim 43, further comprising a plurality ofselectable memory cells connected to the program/erase/read line. 47.The selectable memory cell of claim 43, wherein one or more thermalcharacteristics of the device are selected to substantially reduce aflow of heat out of the nanotube article.
 48. The selectable memory cellof claim 43, wherein the nanotube article permanently overlaps at leasta portion of the second conductive terminal with a controlledgeometrical relationship.
 49. The selectable memory cell of claim 48,wherein the controlled geometrical relationship allows electricalcurrent to flow relatively well between the second conductive terminaland the nanotube article, and allows heat to flow relatively poorlybetween the second conductive terminal and the nanotube article.
 50. Theselectable memory cell of claim 48, wherein the controlled geometricalrelationship comprises a predetermined extent of overlap defined by adimension of the first conductive terminal.
 51. The selectable memorycell of claim 48, wherein the controlled geometrical relationshipcomprises a predetermined extent of overlap within the range of 1 to 150nm.
 52. The selectable memory cell of claim 43, wherein one of the firstand second conductive terminals is a picture frame structure thatpermanently overlaps a periphery of the nanotube article, and does notoverlap the central region of the nanotube article, and wherein theother of the first and second conductive terminals permanently overlapsa central region of the nanotube article.
 53. The selectable memory cellof claim 43, wherein the second conductive terminal has a plurality ofsurfaces, and wherein the nanotube article substantially conforms to andpermanently overlaps at least a portion of more than one surface. 54.The selectable memory cell of claim 43, wherein the second conductiveterminal has a vertically oriented feature, and wherein the nanotubearticle substantially conforms to at least a portion of the verticallyoriented figure.
 55. The selectable memory cell of claim 43, wherein thenanotube article comprises a patterned region of nanotube fabric havinga defined orientation and defined dimensions.
 56. The selectable memorycell of claim 43, wherein the nanotube article is selected from thegroup consisting of double walled nanotubes, single walled nanotubes,and multi-walled nanotubes.
 57. The selectable memory cell of claim 43,wherein the nanotube article comprises bundles of nanotubes.
 58. Theselectable memory cell of claim 43, wherein the first and secondconductive terminals are metal.